@settitle Bison @value{VERSION}
@setchapternewpage odd
-@iftex
@finalout
-@end iftex
@c SMALL BOOK version
@c This edition has been formatted so that you can format and print it in
@c Check COPYRIGHT dates. should be updated in the titlepage, ifinfo
@c titlepage; should NOT be changed in the GPL. --mew
+@c FIXME: I don't understand this `iftex'. Obsolete? --akim.
@iftex
@syncodeindex fn cp
@syncodeindex vr cp
@end ifinfo
@comment %**end of header
-@ifinfo
-@format
-START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
-* bison: (bison). GNU Project parser generator (yacc replacement).
-END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
-@end format
-@end ifinfo
+@copying
-@ifinfo
-This file documents the Bison parser generator.
-
-Copyright (C) 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1998, 1999,
-2000, 2001
-Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-
-Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
-this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
-are preserved on all copies.
-
-@ignore
-Permission is granted to process this file through Tex and print the
-results, provided the printed document carries copying permission
-notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph
-(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual).
-
-@end ignore
-Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
-manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the
-sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Conditions for
-Using Bison'' are included exactly as in the original, and provided that
-the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
-permission notice identical to this one.
-
-Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
-into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
-except that the sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'',
-``Conditions for Using Bison'' and this permission notice may be
-included in translations approved by the Free Software Foundation
-instead of in the original English.
-@end ifinfo
+This manual is for @acronym{GNU} Bison (version @value{VERSION},
+@value{UPDATED}), the @acronym{GNU} parser generator.
+
+Copyright @copyright{} 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1998,
+1999, 2000, 2001, 2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+@quotation
+Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
+under the terms of the @acronym{GNU} Free Documentation License,
+Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software
+Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover texts
+being ``A @acronym{GNU} Manual,'' and with the Back-Cover Texts as in
+(a) below. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled
+``@acronym{GNU} Free Documentation License.''
+
+(a) The @acronym{FSF}'s Back-Cover Text is: ``You have freedom to copy
+and modify this @acronym{GNU} Manual, like @acronym{GNU} software.
+Copies published by the Free Software Foundation raise funds for
+@acronym{GNU} development.''
+@end quotation
+@end copying
+
+@dircategory GNU programming tools
+@direntry
+* bison: (bison). @acronym{GNU} parser generator (Yacc replacement).
+@end direntry
@ifset shorttitlepage-enabled
@shorttitlepage Bison
@end ifset
@titlepage
@title Bison
-@subtitle The YACC-compatible Parser Generator
+@subtitle The Yacc-compatible Parser Generator
@subtitle @value{UPDATED}, Bison Version @value{VERSION}
@author by Charles Donnelly and Richard Stallman
@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
-Copyright @copyright{} 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1998,
-1999, 2000, 2001
-Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-
+@insertcopying
@sp 2
Published by the Free Software Foundation @*
59 Temple Place, Suite 330 @*
Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA @*
Printed copies are available from the Free Software Foundation.@*
-ISBN 1-882114-44-2
-
-Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
-this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
-are preserved on all copies.
-
-@ignore
-Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the
-results, provided the printed document carries copying permission
-notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph
-(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual).
-
-@end ignore
-Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
-manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the
-sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Conditions for
-Using Bison'' are included exactly as in the original, and provided that
-the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
-permission notice identical to this one.
-
-Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
-into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
-except that the sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'',
-``Conditions for Using Bison'' and this permission notice may be
-included in translations approved by the Free Software Foundation
-instead of in the original English.
+@acronym{ISBN} 1-882114-44-2
@sp 2
Cover art by Etienne Suvasa.
@end titlepage
@contents
-@node Top, Introduction, (dir), (dir)
-
-@ifinfo
-This manual documents version @value{VERSION} of Bison.
-@end ifinfo
+@ifnottex
+@node Top
+@top Bison
+@insertcopying
+@end ifnottex
@menu
* Introduction::
* Conditions::
-* Copying:: The GNU General Public License says
+* Copying:: The @acronym{GNU} General Public License says
how you can copy and share Bison
Tutorial sections:
* Error Recovery:: Writing rules for error recovery.
* Context Dependency:: What to do if your language syntax is too
messy for Bison to handle straightforwardly.
-* Debugging:: Debugging Bison parsers that parse wrong.
+* Debugging:: Understanding or debugging Bison parsers.
* Invocation:: How to run Bison (to produce the parser source file).
* Table of Symbols:: All the keywords of the Bison language are explained.
* Glossary:: Basic concepts are explained.
+* FAQ:: Frequently Asked Questions
* Copying This Manual:: License for copying this manual.
* Index:: Cross-references to the text.
- --- The Detailed Node Listing ---
+@detailmenu --- The Detailed Node Listing ---
The Concepts of Bison
* Infix Calc:: Infix (algebraic) notation calculator.
Operator precedence is introduced.
* Simple Error Recovery:: Continuing after syntax errors.
+* Location Tracking Calc:: Demonstrating the use of @@@var{n} and @@$.
* Multi-function Calc:: Calculator with memory and trig functions.
It uses multiple data-types for semantic values.
* Exercises:: Ideas for improving the multi-function calculator.
Reverse Polish Notation Calculator
-* Decls: Rpcalc Decls. Bison and C declarations for rpcalc.
+* Decls: Rpcalc Decls. Prologue (declarations) for rpcalc.
* Rules: Rpcalc Rules. Grammar Rules for rpcalc, with explanation.
* Lexer: Rpcalc Lexer. The lexical analyzer.
* Main: Rpcalc Main. The controlling function.
* Rpcalc Line::
* Rpcalc Expr::
+Location Tracking Calculator: @code{ltcalc}
+
+* Decls: Ltcalc Decls. Bison and C declarations for ltcalc.
+* Rules: Ltcalc Rules. Grammar rules for ltcalc, with explanations.
+* Lexer: Ltcalc Lexer. The lexical analyzer.
+
Multi-Function Calculator: @code{mfcalc}
* Decl: Mfcalc Decl. Bison declarations for multi-function calculator.
Outline of a Bison Grammar
-* C Declarations:: Syntax and usage of the C declarations section.
+* Prologue:: Syntax and usage of the prologue (declarations section).
* Bison Declarations:: Syntax and usage of the Bison declarations section.
* Grammar Rules:: Syntax and usage of the grammar rules section.
-* C Code:: Syntax and usage of the additional C code section.
+* Epilogue:: Syntax and usage of the epilogue (additional code section).
Defining Language Semantics
* Precedence Decl:: Declaring terminals with precedence and associativity.
* Union Decl:: Declaring the set of all semantic value types.
* Type Decl:: Declaring the choice of type for a nonterminal symbol.
+* Destructor Decl:: Declaring how symbols are freed.
* Expect Decl:: Suppressing warnings about shift/reduce conflicts.
* Start Decl:: Specifying the start symbol.
* Pure Decl:: Requesting a reentrant parser.
* Parser States:: The parser is a finite-state-machine with stack.
* Reduce/Reduce:: When two rules are applicable in the same situation.
* Mystery Conflicts:: Reduce/reduce conflicts that look unjustified.
+* Generalized LR Parsing:: Parsing arbitrary context-free grammars.
* Stack Overflow:: What happens when stack gets full. How to avoid it.
Operator Precedence
* Tie-in Recovery:: Lexical tie-ins have implications for how
error recovery rules must be written.
+Understanding or Debugging Your Parser
+
+* Understanding:: Understanding the structure of your parser.
+* Tracing:: Tracing the execution of your parser.
+
Invoking Bison
* Bison Options:: All the options described in detail,
- in alphabetical order by short options.
+ in alphabetical order by short options.
* Option Cross Key:: Alphabetical list of long options.
-* VMS Invocation:: Bison command syntax on VMS.
+
+Frequently Asked Questions
+
+* Parser Stack Overflow:: Breaking the Stack Limits
Copying This Manual
* GNU Free Documentation License:: License for copying this manual.
+@end detailmenu
@end menu
-@node Introduction, Conditions, Top, Top
+@node Introduction
@unnumbered Introduction
@cindex introduction
@dfn{Bison} is a general-purpose parser generator that converts a
-grammar description for an LALR(1) context-free grammar into a C
+grammar description for an @acronym{LALR}(1) context-free grammar into a C
program to parse that grammar. Once you are proficient with Bison,
you may use it to develop a wide range of language parsers, from those
used in simple desk calculators to complex programming languages.
This edition corresponds to version @value{VERSION} of Bison.
-@node Conditions, Copying, Introduction, Top
+@node Conditions
@unnumbered Conditions for Using Bison
As of Bison version 1.24, we have changed the distribution terms for
-@code{yyparse} to permit using Bison's output in nonfree programs.
-Formerly, Bison parsers could be used only in programs that were free
-software.
+@code{yyparse} to permit using Bison's output in nonfree programs when
+Bison is generating C code for @acronym{LALR}(1) parsers. Formerly, these
+parsers could be used only in programs that were free software.
-The other GNU programming tools, such as the GNU C compiler, have never
+The other @acronym{GNU} programming tools, such as the @acronym{GNU} C
+compiler, have never
had such a requirement. They could always be used for nonfree
software. The reason Bison was different was not due to a special
policy decision; it resulted from applying the usual General Public
verbatim copy of a sizable piece of Bison, which is the code for the
@code{yyparse} function. (The actions from your grammar are inserted
into this function at one point, but the rest of the function is not
-changed.) When we applied the GPL terms to the code for @code{yyparse},
+changed.) When we applied the @acronym{GPL} terms to the code for
+@code{yyparse},
the effect was to restrict the use of Bison output to free software.
We didn't change the terms because of sympathy for people who want to
concluded that limiting Bison's use to free software was doing little to
encourage people to make other software free. So we decided to make the
practical conditions for using Bison match the practical conditions for
-using the other GNU tools.
+using the other @acronym{GNU} tools.
+
+This exception applies only when Bison is generating C code for a
+@acronym{LALR}(1) parser; otherwise, the @acronym{GPL} terms operate
+as usual. You can
+tell whether the exception applies to your @samp{.c} output file by
+inspecting it to see whether it says ``As a special exception, when
+this file is copied by Bison into a Bison output file, you may use
+that output file without restriction.''
@include gpl.texi
-@node Concepts, Examples, Copying, Top
+@node Concepts
@chapter The Concepts of Bison
This chapter introduces many of the basic concepts without which the
a semantic value (the value of an integer,
the name of an identifier, etc.).
* Semantic Actions:: Each rule can have an action containing C code.
+* GLR Parsers:: Writing parsers for general context-free languages
* Locations Overview:: Tracking Locations.
* Bison Parser:: What are Bison's input and output,
how is the output used?
* Grammar Layout:: Overall structure of a Bison grammar file.
@end menu
-@node Language and Grammar, Grammar in Bison, , Concepts
+@node Language and Grammar
@section Languages and Context-Free Grammars
@cindex context-free grammar
recursive, but there must be at least one rule which leads out of the
recursion.
-@cindex BNF
+@cindex @acronym{BNF}
@cindex Backus-Naur form
The most common formal system for presenting such rules for humans to read
-is @dfn{Backus-Naur Form} or ``BNF'', which was developed in order to
-specify the language Algol 60. Any grammar expressed in BNF is a
-context-free grammar. The input to Bison is essentially machine-readable
-BNF.
-
-Not all context-free languages can be handled by Bison, only those
-that are LALR(1). In brief, this means that it must be possible to
+is @dfn{Backus-Naur Form} or ``@acronym{BNF}'', which was developed in
+order to specify the language Algol 60. Any grammar expressed in
+@acronym{BNF} is a context-free grammar. The input to Bison is
+essentially machine-readable @acronym{BNF}.
+
+@cindex @acronym{LALR}(1) grammars
+@cindex @acronym{LR}(1) grammars
+There are various important subclasses of context-free grammar. Although it
+can handle almost all context-free grammars, Bison is optimized for what
+are called @acronym{LALR}(1) grammars.
+In brief, in these grammars, it must be possible to
tell how to parse any portion of an input string with just a single
token of look-ahead. Strictly speaking, that is a description of an
-LR(1) grammar, and LALR(1) involves additional restrictions that are
+@acronym{LR}(1) grammar, and @acronym{LALR}(1) involves additional
+restrictions that are
hard to explain simply; but it is rare in actual practice to find an
-LR(1) grammar that fails to be LALR(1). @xref{Mystery Conflicts, ,
-Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}, for more information on this.
+@acronym{LR}(1) grammar that fails to be @acronym{LALR}(1).
+@xref{Mystery Conflicts, ,Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}, for
+more information on this.
+
+@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsing
+@cindex generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) parsing
+@cindex ambiguous grammars
+@cindex non-deterministic parsing
+
+Parsers for @acronym{LALR}(1) grammars are @dfn{deterministic}, meaning
+roughly that the next grammar rule to apply at any point in the input is
+uniquely determined by the preceding input and a fixed, finite portion
+(called a @dfn{look-ahead}) of the remaining input. A context-free
+grammar can be @dfn{ambiguous}, meaning that there are multiple ways to
+apply the grammar rules to get the some inputs. Even unambiguous
+grammars can be @dfn{non-deterministic}, meaning that no fixed
+look-ahead always suffices to determine the next grammar rule to apply.
+With the proper declarations, Bison is also able to parse these more
+general context-free grammars, using a technique known as @acronym{GLR}
+parsing (for Generalized @acronym{LR}). Bison's @acronym{GLR} parsers
+are able to handle any context-free grammar for which the number of
+possible parses of any given string is finite.
@cindex symbols (abstract)
@cindex token
@cindex syntactic grouping
@cindex grouping, syntactic
-In the formal grammatical rules for a language, each kind of syntactic unit
-or grouping is named by a @dfn{symbol}. Those which are built by grouping
-smaller constructs according to grammatical rules are called
+In the formal grammatical rules for a language, each kind of syntactic
+unit or grouping is named by a @dfn{symbol}. Those which are built by
+grouping smaller constructs according to grammatical rules are called
@dfn{nonterminal symbols}; those which can't be subdivided are called
@dfn{terminal symbols} or @dfn{token types}. We call a piece of input
corresponding to a single terminal symbol a @dfn{token}, and a piece
-corresponding to a single nonterminal symbol a @dfn{grouping}.@refill
+corresponding to a single nonterminal symbol a @dfn{grouping}.
We can use the C language as an example of what symbols, terminal and
-nonterminal, mean. The tokens of C are identifiers, constants (numeric and
-string), and the various keywords, arithmetic operators and punctuation
-marks. So the terminal symbols of a grammar for C include `identifier',
-`number', `string', plus one symbol for each keyword, operator or
-punctuation mark: `if', `return', `const', `static', `int', `char',
-`plus-sign', `open-brace', `close-brace', `comma' and many more. (These
-tokens can be subdivided into characters, but that is a matter of
+nonterminal, mean. The tokens of C are identifiers, constants (numeric
+and string), and the various keywords, arithmetic operators and
+punctuation marks. So the terminal symbols of a grammar for C include
+`identifier', `number', `string', plus one symbol for each keyword,
+operator or punctuation mark: `if', `return', `const', `static', `int',
+`char', `plus-sign', `open-brace', `close-brace', `comma' and many more.
+(These tokens can be subdivided into characters, but that is a matter of
lexicography, not grammar.)
Here is a simple C function subdivided into tokens:
+@ifinfo
+@example
+int /* @r{keyword `int'} */
+square (int x) /* @r{identifier, open-paren, identifier,}
+ @r{identifier, close-paren} */
+@{ /* @r{open-brace} */
+ return x * x; /* @r{keyword `return', identifier, asterisk,
+ identifier, semicolon} */
+@} /* @r{close-brace} */
+@end example
+@end ifinfo
+@ifnotinfo
@example
int /* @r{keyword `int'} */
-square (x) /* @r{identifier, open-paren,} */
- /* @r{identifier, close-paren} */
- int x; /* @r{keyword `int', identifier, semicolon} */
+square (int x) /* @r{identifier, open-paren, identifier, identifier, close-paren} */
@{ /* @r{open-brace} */
- return x * x; /* @r{keyword `return', identifier,} */
- /* @r{asterisk, identifier, semicolon} */
+ return x * x; /* @r{keyword `return', identifier, asterisk, identifier, semicolon} */
@} /* @r{close-brace} */
@end example
+@end ifnotinfo
The syntactic groupings of C include the expression, the statement, the
declaration, and the function definition. These are represented in the
must be a `sequence of definitions and declarations'. If not, the parser
reports a syntax error.
-@node Grammar in Bison, Semantic Values, Language and Grammar, Concepts
+@node Grammar in Bison
@section From Formal Rules to Bison Input
@cindex Bison grammar
@cindex grammar, Bison
a @dfn{Bison grammar} file. @xref{Grammar File, ,Bison Grammar Files}.
A nonterminal symbol in the formal grammar is represented in Bison input
-as an identifier, like an identifier in C. By convention, it should be
+as an identifier, like an identifier in C@. By convention, it should be
in lower case, such as @code{expr}, @code{stmt} or @code{declaration}.
The Bison representation for a terminal symbol is also called a @dfn{token
@noindent
@xref{Rules, ,Syntax of Grammar Rules}.
-@node Semantic Values, Semantic Actions, Grammar in Bison, Concepts
+@node Semantic Values
@section Semantic Values
@cindex semantic value
@cindex value, semantic
@emph{any} integer constant is grammatically valid in that position. The
precise value of the constant is irrelevant to how to parse the input: if
@samp{x+4} is grammatical then @samp{x+1} or @samp{x+3989} is equally
-grammatical.@refill
+grammatical.
But the precise value is very important for what the input means once it is
parsed. A compiler is useless if it fails to distinguish between 4, 1 and
3989 as constants in the program! Therefore, each token in a Bison grammar
-has both a token type and a @dfn{semantic value}. @xref{Semantics, ,Defining Language Semantics},
+has both a token type and a @dfn{semantic value}. @xref{Semantics,
+,Defining Language Semantics},
for details.
The token type is a terminal symbol defined in the grammar, such as
@code{INTEGER}, @code{IDENTIFIER} or @code{','}. It tells everything
you need to know to decide where the token may validly appear and how to
group it with other tokens. The grammar rules know nothing about tokens
-except their types.@refill
+except their types.
The semantic value has all the rest of the information about the
meaning of the token, such as the value of an integer, or the name of an
language, an expression typically has a semantic value that is a tree
structure describing the meaning of the expression.
-@node Semantic Actions, Locations Overview, Semantic Values, Concepts
+@node Semantic Actions
@section Semantic Actions
@cindex semantic actions
@cindex actions, semantic
The action says how to produce the semantic value of the sum expression
from the values of the two subexpressions.
-@node Locations Overview, Bison Parser, Semantic Actions, Concepts
+@node GLR Parsers
+@section Writing @acronym{GLR} Parsers
+@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsing
+@cindex generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) parsing
+@findex %glr-parser
+@cindex conflicts
+@cindex shift/reduce conflicts
+
+In some grammars, there will be cases where Bison's standard
+@acronym{LALR}(1) parsing algorithm cannot decide whether to apply a
+certain grammar rule at a given point. That is, it may not be able to
+decide (on the basis of the input read so far) which of two possible
+reductions (applications of a grammar rule) applies, or whether to apply
+a reduction or read more of the input and apply a reduction later in the
+input. These are known respectively as @dfn{reduce/reduce} conflicts
+(@pxref{Reduce/Reduce}), and @dfn{shift/reduce} conflicts
+(@pxref{Shift/Reduce}).
+
+To use a grammar that is not easily modified to be @acronym{LALR}(1), a
+more general parsing algorithm is sometimes necessary. If you include
+@code{%glr-parser} among the Bison declarations in your file
+(@pxref{Grammar Outline}), the result will be a Generalized @acronym{LR}
+(@acronym{GLR}) parser. These parsers handle Bison grammars that
+contain no unresolved conflicts (i.e., after applying precedence
+declarations) identically to @acronym{LALR}(1) parsers. However, when
+faced with unresolved shift/reduce and reduce/reduce conflicts,
+@acronym{GLR} parsers use the simple expedient of doing both,
+effectively cloning the parser to follow both possibilities. Each of
+the resulting parsers can again split, so that at any given time, there
+can be any number of possible parses being explored. The parsers
+proceed in lockstep; that is, all of them consume (shift) a given input
+symbol before any of them proceed to the next. Each of the cloned
+parsers eventually meets one of two possible fates: either it runs into
+a parsing error, in which case it simply vanishes, or it merges with
+another parser, because the two of them have reduced the input to an
+identical set of symbols.
+
+During the time that there are multiple parsers, semantic actions are
+recorded, but not performed. When a parser disappears, its recorded
+semantic actions disappear as well, and are never performed. When a
+reduction makes two parsers identical, causing them to merge, Bison
+records both sets of semantic actions. Whenever the last two parsers
+merge, reverting to the single-parser case, Bison resolves all the
+outstanding actions either by precedences given to the grammar rules
+involved, or by performing both actions, and then calling a designated
+user-defined function on the resulting values to produce an arbitrary
+merged result.
+
+Let's consider an example, vastly simplified from a C++ grammar.
+
+@example
+%@{
+ #define YYSTYPE const char*
+%@}
+
+%token TYPENAME ID
+
+%right '='
+%left '+'
+
+%glr-parser
+
+%%
+
+prog :
+ | prog stmt @{ printf ("\n"); @}
+ ;
+
+stmt : expr ';' %dprec 1
+ | decl %dprec 2
+ ;
+
+expr : ID @{ printf ("%s ", $$); @}
+ | TYPENAME '(' expr ')'
+ @{ printf ("%s <cast> ", $1); @}
+ | expr '+' expr @{ printf ("+ "); @}
+ | expr '=' expr @{ printf ("= "); @}
+ ;
+
+decl : TYPENAME declarator ';'
+ @{ printf ("%s <declare> ", $1); @}
+ | TYPENAME declarator '=' expr ';'
+ @{ printf ("%s <init-declare> ", $1); @}
+ ;
+
+declarator : ID @{ printf ("\"%s\" ", $1); @}
+ | '(' declarator ')'
+ ;
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+This models a problematic part of the C++ grammar---the ambiguity between
+certain declarations and statements. For example,
+
+@example
+T (x) = y+z;
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+parses as either an @code{expr} or a @code{stmt}
+(assuming that @samp{T} is recognized as a @code{TYPENAME} and
+@samp{x} as an @code{ID}).
+Bison detects this as a reduce/reduce conflict between the rules
+@code{expr : ID} and @code{declarator : ID}, which it cannot resolve at the
+time it encounters @code{x} in the example above. The two @code{%dprec}
+declarations, however, give precedence to interpreting the example as a
+@code{decl}, which implies that @code{x} is a declarator.
+The parser therefore prints
+
+@example
+"x" y z + T <init-declare>
+@end example
+
+Consider a different input string for this parser:
+
+@example
+T (x) + y;
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+Here, there is no ambiguity (this cannot be parsed as a declaration).
+However, at the time the Bison parser encounters @code{x}, it does not
+have enough information to resolve the reduce/reduce conflict (again,
+between @code{x} as an @code{expr} or a @code{declarator}). In this
+case, no precedence declaration is used. Instead, the parser splits
+into two, one assuming that @code{x} is an @code{expr}, and the other
+assuming @code{x} is a @code{declarator}. The second of these parsers
+then vanishes when it sees @code{+}, and the parser prints
+
+@example
+x T <cast> y +
+@end example
+
+Suppose that instead of resolving the ambiguity, you wanted to see all
+the possibilities. For this purpose, we must @dfn{merge} the semantic
+actions of the two possible parsers, rather than choosing one over the
+other. To do so, you could change the declaration of @code{stmt} as
+follows:
+
+@example
+stmt : expr ';' %merge <stmtMerge>
+ | decl %merge <stmtMerge>
+ ;
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+
+and define the @code{stmtMerge} function as:
+
+@example
+static YYSTYPE stmtMerge (YYSTYPE x0, YYSTYPE x1)
+@{
+ printf ("<OR> ");
+ return "";
+@}
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+with an accompanying forward declaration
+in the C declarations at the beginning of the file:
+
+@example
+%@{
+ #define YYSTYPE const char*
+ static YYSTYPE stmtMerge (YYSTYPE x0, YYSTYPE x1);
+%@}
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+With these declarations, the resulting parser will parse the first example
+as both an @code{expr} and a @code{decl}, and print
+
+@example
+"x" y z + T <init-declare> x T <cast> y z + = <OR>
+@end example
+
+@sp 1
+
+@cindex @code{incline}
+@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsers and @code{inline}
+Note that the @acronym{GLR} parsers require an ISO C89 compiler. In
+addition, they use the @code{inline} keyword, which is not C89, but a
+common extension. It is up to the user of these parsers to handle
+portability issues. For instance, if using Autoconf and the Autoconf
+macro @code{AC_C_INLINE}, a mere
+
+@example
+%@{
+#include <config.h>
+%@}
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+will suffice. Otherwise, we suggest
+
+@example
+%@{
+#if ! defined __GNUC__ && ! defined inline
+# define inline
+#endif
+%@}
+@end example
+
+@node Locations Overview
@section Locations
@cindex location
@cindex textual position
@cindex position, textual
Many applications, like interpreters or compilers, have to produce verbose
-and useful error messages. To achieve this, one must be able to keep track of
+and useful error messages. To achieve this, one must be able to keep track of
the @dfn{textual position}, or @dfn{location}, of each syntactic construct.
Bison provides a mechanism for handling these locations.
-Each token has a semantic value. In a similar fashion, each token has an
+Each token has a semantic value. In a similar fashion, each token has an
associated location, but the type of locations is the same for all tokens and
-groupings. Moreover, the output parser is equipped with a default data
+groupings. Moreover, the output parser is equipped with a default data
structure for storing locations (@pxref{Locations}, for more details).
Like semantic values, locations can be reached in actions using a dedicated
-set of constructs. In the example above, the location of the whole grouping
+set of constructs. In the example above, the location of the whole grouping
is @code{@@$}, while the locations of the subexpressions are @code{@@1} and
@code{@@3}.
When a rule is matched, a default action is used to compute the semantic value
-of its left hand side (@pxref{Actions}). In the same way, another default
-action is used for locations. However, the action for locations is general
+of its left hand side (@pxref{Actions}). In the same way, another default
+action is used for locations. However, the action for locations is general
enough for most cases, meaning there is usually no need to describe for each
-rule how @code{@@$} should be formed. When building a new location for a given
+rule how @code{@@$} should be formed. When building a new location for a given
grouping, the default behavior of the output parser is to take the beginning
of the first symbol, and the end of the last symbol.
-@node Bison Parser, Stages, Locations Overview, Concepts
+@node Bison Parser
@section Bison Output: the Parser File
@cindex Bison parser
@cindex Bison utility
expressions. As it does this, it runs the actions for the grammar rules it
uses.
-The tokens come from a function called the @dfn{lexical analyzer} that you
-must supply in some fashion (such as by writing it in C). The Bison parser
-calls the lexical analyzer each time it wants a new token. It doesn't know
-what is ``inside'' the tokens (though their semantic values may reflect
-this). Typically the lexical analyzer makes the tokens by parsing
-characters of text, but Bison does not depend on this. @xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}.
+The tokens come from a function called the @dfn{lexical analyzer} that
+you must supply in some fashion (such as by writing it in C). The Bison
+parser calls the lexical analyzer each time it wants a new token. It
+doesn't know what is ``inside'' the tokens (though their semantic values
+may reflect this). Typically the lexical analyzer makes the tokens by
+parsing characters of text, but Bison does not depend on this.
+@xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}.
The Bison parser file is C code which defines a function named
@code{yyparse} which implements that grammar. This function does not make
@xref{Interface, ,Parser C-Language Interface}.
Aside from the token type names and the symbols in the actions you
-write, all variable and function names used in the Bison parser file
+write, all symbols defined in the Bison parser file itself
begin with @samp{yy} or @samp{YY}. This includes interface functions
such as the lexical analyzer function @code{yylex}, the error reporting
function @code{yyerror} and the parser function @code{yyparse} itself.
or @samp{YY} in the Bison grammar file except for the ones defined in
this manual.
-@node Stages, Grammar Layout, Bison Parser, Concepts
+In some cases the Bison parser file includes system headers, and in
+those cases your code should respect the identifiers reserved by those
+headers. On some non-@acronym{GNU} hosts, @code{<alloca.h>},
+@code{<stddef.h>}, and @code{<stdlib.h>} are included as needed to
+declare memory allocators and related types. Other system headers may
+be included if you define @code{YYDEBUG} to a nonzero value
+(@pxref{Tracing, ,Tracing Your Parser}).
+
+@node Stages
@section Stages in Using Bison
@cindex stages in using Bison
@cindex using Bison
@enumerate
@item
Formally specify the grammar in a form recognized by Bison
-(@pxref{Grammar File, ,Bison Grammar Files}). For each grammatical rule in the language,
-describe the action that is to be taken when an instance of that rule
-is recognized. The action is described by a sequence of C statements.
+(@pxref{Grammar File, ,Bison Grammar Files}). For each grammatical rule
+in the language, describe the action that is to be taken when an
+instance of that rule is recognized. The action is described by a
+sequence of C statements.
@item
-Write a lexical analyzer to process input and pass tokens to the
-parser. The lexical analyzer may be written by hand in C
-(@pxref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}). It could also be produced using Lex, but the use
-of Lex is not discussed in this manual.
+Write a lexical analyzer to process input and pass tokens to the parser.
+The lexical analyzer may be written by hand in C (@pxref{Lexical, ,The
+Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}). It could also be produced
+using Lex, but the use of Lex is not discussed in this manual.
@item
Write a controlling function that calls the Bison-produced parser.
Link the object files to produce the finished product.
@end enumerate
-@node Grammar Layout, , Stages, Concepts
+@node Grammar Layout
@section The Overall Layout of a Bison Grammar
@cindex grammar file
@cindex file format
@example
%@{
-@var{C declarations}
+@var{Prologue}
%@}
@var{Bison declarations}
%%
@var{Grammar rules}
%%
-@var{Additional C code}
+@var{Epilogue}
@end example
@noindent
The @samp{%%}, @samp{%@{} and @samp{%@}} are punctuation that appears
in every Bison grammar file to separate the sections.
-The C declarations may define types and variables used in the actions.
-You can also use preprocessor commands to define macros used there, and use
+The prologue may define types and variables used in the actions. You can
+also use preprocessor commands to define macros used there, and use
@code{#include} to include header files that do any of these things.
The Bison declarations declare the names of the terminal and nonterminal
The grammar rules define how to construct each nonterminal symbol from its
parts.
-The additional C code can contain any C code you want to use. Often the
-definition of the lexical analyzer @code{yylex} goes here, plus subroutines
-called by the actions in the grammar rules. In a simple program, all the
-rest of the program can go here.
+The epilogue can contain any code you want to use. Often the definition of
+the lexical analyzer @code{yylex} goes here, plus subroutines called by the
+actions in the grammar rules. In a simple program, all the rest of the
+program can go here.
-@node Examples, Grammar File, Concepts, Top
+@node Examples
@chapter Examples
@cindex simple examples
@cindex examples, simple
* Infix Calc:: Infix (algebraic) notation calculator.
Operator precedence is introduced.
* Simple Error Recovery:: Continuing after syntax errors.
+* Location Tracking Calc:: Demonstrating the use of @@@var{n} and @@$.
* Multi-function Calc:: Calculator with memory and trig functions.
It uses multiple data-types for semantic values.
* Exercises:: Ideas for improving the multi-function calculator.
@end menu
-@node RPN Calc, Infix Calc, , Examples
+@node RPN Calc
@section Reverse Polish Notation Calculator
@cindex reverse polish notation
@cindex polish notation calculator
@samp{.y} extension is a convention used for Bison input files.
@menu
-* Decls: Rpcalc Decls. Bison and C declarations for rpcalc.
+* Decls: Rpcalc Decls. Prologue (declarations) for rpcalc.
* Rules: Rpcalc Rules. Grammar Rules for rpcalc, with explanation.
* Lexer: Rpcalc Lexer. The lexical analyzer.
* Main: Rpcalc Main. The controlling function.
* Comp: Rpcalc Compile. Run the C compiler on the output code.
@end menu
-@node Rpcalc Decls, Rpcalc Rules, , RPN Calc
+@node Rpcalc Decls
@subsection Declarations for @code{rpcalc}
Here are the C and Bison declarations for the reverse polish notation
calculator. As in C, comments are placed between @samp{/*@dots{}*/}.
@example
-/* Reverse polish notation calculator. */
+/* Reverse polish notation calculator. */
%@{
#define YYSTYPE double
%token NUM
-%% /* Grammar rules and actions follow */
+%% /* Grammar rules and actions follow. */
@end example
-The C declarations section (@pxref{C Declarations, ,The C Declarations Section}) contains two
+The declarations section (@pxref{Prologue, , The prologue}) contains two
preprocessor directives.
The @code{#define} directive defines the macro @code{YYSTYPE}, thus
-specifying the C data type for semantic values of both tokens and groupings
-(@pxref{Value Type, ,Data Types of Semantic Values}). The Bison parser will use whatever type
-@code{YYSTYPE} is defined as; if you don't define it, @code{int} is the
-default. Because we specify @code{double}, each token and each expression
-has an associated value, which is a floating point number.
+specifying the C data type for semantic values of both tokens and
+groupings (@pxref{Value Type, ,Data Types of Semantic Values}). The
+Bison parser will use whatever type @code{YYSTYPE} is defined as; if you
+don't define it, @code{int} is the default. Because we specify
+@code{double}, each token and each expression has an associated value,
+which is a floating point number.
The @code{#include} directive is used to declare the exponentiation
function @code{pow}.
-The second section, Bison declarations, provides information to Bison about
-the token types (@pxref{Bison Declarations, ,The Bison Declarations Section}). Each terminal symbol that is
-not a single-character literal must be declared here. (Single-character
+The second section, Bison declarations, provides information to Bison
+about the token types (@pxref{Bison Declarations, ,The Bison
+Declarations Section}). Each terminal symbol that is not a
+single-character literal must be declared here. (Single-character
literals normally don't need to be declared.) In this example, all the
arithmetic operators are designated by single-character literals, so the
only terminal symbol that needs to be declared is @code{NUM}, the token
type for numeric constants.
-@node Rpcalc Rules, Rpcalc Lexer, Rpcalc Decls, RPN Calc
+@node Rpcalc Rules
@subsection Grammar Rules for @code{rpcalc}
Here are the grammar rules for the reverse polish notation calculator.
;
line: '\n'
- | exp '\n' @{ printf ("\t%.10g\n", $1); @}
+ | exp '\n' @{ printf ("\t%.10g\n", $1); @}
;
-exp: NUM @{ $$ = $1; @}
- | exp exp '+' @{ $$ = $1 + $2; @}
- | exp exp '-' @{ $$ = $1 - $2; @}
- | exp exp '*' @{ $$ = $1 * $2; @}
- | exp exp '/' @{ $$ = $1 / $2; @}
- /* Exponentiation */
- | exp exp '^' @{ $$ = pow ($1, $2); @}
- /* Unary minus */
- | exp 'n' @{ $$ = -$1; @}
+exp: NUM @{ $$ = $1; @}
+ | exp exp '+' @{ $$ = $1 + $2; @}
+ | exp exp '-' @{ $$ = $1 - $2; @}
+ | exp exp '*' @{ $$ = $1 * $2; @}
+ | exp exp '/' @{ $$ = $1 / $2; @}
+ /* Exponentiation */
+ | exp exp '^' @{ $$ = pow ($1, $2); @}
+ /* Unary minus */
+ | exp 'n' @{ $$ = -$1; @}
;
%%
@end example
* Rpcalc Expr::
@end menu
-@node Rpcalc Input, Rpcalc Line, , Rpcalc Rules
+@node Rpcalc Input
@subsubsection Explanation of @code{input}
Consider the definition of @code{input}:
The parser function @code{yyparse} continues to process input until a
grammatical error is seen or the lexical analyzer says there are no more
-input tokens; we will arrange for the latter to happen at end of file.
+input tokens; we will arrange for the latter to happen at end-of-input.
-@node Rpcalc Line, Rpcalc Expr, Rpcalc Input, Rpcalc Rules
+@node Rpcalc Line
@subsubsection Explanation of @code{line}
Now consider the definition of @code{line}:
that value were ever used, but we don't use it: once rpcalc has printed the
value of the user's input line, that value is no longer needed.
-@node Rpcalc Expr, , Rpcalc Line, Rpcalc Rules
+@node Rpcalc Expr
@subsubsection Explanation of @code{expr}
The @code{exp} grouping has several rules, one for each kind of expression.
This is what happens in the first rule (the one that uses @code{NUM}).
The formatting shown here is the recommended convention, but Bison does
-not require it. You can add or change whitespace as much as you wish.
+not require it. You can add or change white space as much as you wish.
For example, this:
@example
@noindent
The latter, however, is much more readable.
-@node Rpcalc Lexer, Rpcalc Main, Rpcalc Rules, RPN Calc
+@node Rpcalc Lexer
@subsection The @code{rpcalc} Lexical Analyzer
@cindex writing a lexical analyzer
@cindex lexical analyzer, writing
-The lexical analyzer's job is low-level parsing: converting characters or
-sequences of characters into tokens. The Bison parser gets its tokens by
-calling the lexical analyzer. @xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}.
+The lexical analyzer's job is low-level parsing: converting characters
+or sequences of characters into tokens. The Bison parser gets its
+tokens by calling the lexical analyzer. @xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical
+Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}.
-Only a simple lexical analyzer is needed for the RPN calculator. This
+Only a simple lexical analyzer is needed for the @acronym{RPN}
+calculator. This
lexical analyzer skips blanks and tabs, then reads in numbers as
@code{double} and returns them as @code{NUM} tokens. Any other character
that isn't part of a number is a separate token. Note that the token-code
represents a token type. The same text used in Bison rules to stand for
this token type is also a C expression for the numeric code for the type.
This works in two ways. If the token type is a character literal, then its
-numeric code is the ASCII code for that character; you can use the same
+numeric code is that of the character; you can use the same
character literal in the lexical analyzer to express the number. If the
token type is an identifier, that identifier is defined by Bison as a C
macro whose definition is the appropriate number. In this example,
therefore, @code{NUM} becomes a macro for @code{yylex} to use.
-The semantic value of the token (if it has one) is stored into the global
-variable @code{yylval}, which is where the Bison parser will look for it.
-(The C data type of @code{yylval} is @code{YYSTYPE}, which was defined
-at the beginning of the grammar; @pxref{Rpcalc Decls, ,Declarations for @code{rpcalc}}.)
+The semantic value of the token (if it has one) is stored into the
+global variable @code{yylval}, which is where the Bison parser will look
+for it. (The C data type of @code{yylval} is @code{YYSTYPE}, which was
+defined at the beginning of the grammar; @pxref{Rpcalc Decls,
+,Declarations for @code{rpcalc}}.)
-A token type code of zero is returned if the end-of-file is encountered.
-(Bison recognizes any nonpositive value as indicating the end of the
-input.)
+A token type code of zero is returned if the end-of-input is encountered.
+(Bison recognizes any nonpositive value as indicating end-of-input.)
Here is the code for the lexical analyzer:
@example
@group
-/* Lexical analyzer returns a double floating point
- number on the stack and the token NUM, or the ASCII
- character read if not a number. Skips all blanks
- and tabs, returns 0 for EOF. */
+/* The lexical analyzer returns a double floating point
+ number on the stack and the token NUM, or the numeric code
+ of the character read if not a number. It skips all blanks
+ and tabs, and returns 0 for end-of-input. */
#include <ctype.h>
@end group
@{
int c;
- /* skip white space */
+ /* Skip white space. */
while ((c = getchar ()) == ' ' || c == '\t')
;
@end group
@group
- /* process numbers */
+ /* Process numbers. */
if (c == '.' || isdigit (c))
@{
ungetc (c, stdin);
@}
@end group
@group
- /* return end-of-file */
+ /* Return end-of-input. */
if (c == EOF)
return 0;
- /* return single chars */
+ /* Return a single char. */
return c;
@}
@end group
@end example
-@node Rpcalc Main, Rpcalc Error, Rpcalc Lexer, RPN Calc
+@node Rpcalc Main
@subsection The Controlling Function
@cindex controlling function
@cindex main function in simple example
@end group
@end example
-@node Rpcalc Error, Rpcalc Gen, Rpcalc Main, RPN Calc
+@node Rpcalc Error
@subsection The Error Reporting Routine
@cindex error reporting routine
When @code{yyparse} detects a syntax error, it calls the error reporting
function @code{yyerror} to print an error message (usually but not
-always @code{"parse error"}). It is up to the programmer to supply
+always @code{"syntax error"}). It is up to the programmer to supply
@code{yyerror} (@pxref{Interface, ,Parser C-Language Interface}), so
here is the definition we will use:
#include <stdio.h>
void
-yyerror (const char *s) /* Called by yyparse on error */
+yyerror (const char *s) /* Called by yyparse on error. */
@{
printf ("%s\n", s);
@}
cause the calculator program to exit. This is not clean behavior for a
real calculator, but it is adequate for the first example.
-@node Rpcalc Gen, Rpcalc Compile, Rpcalc Error, RPN Calc
+@node Rpcalc Gen
@subsection Running Bison to Make the Parser
@cindex running Bison (introduction)
arrange all the source code in one or more source files. For such a
simple example, the easiest thing is to put everything in one file. The
definitions of @code{yylex}, @code{yyerror} and @code{main} go at the
-end, in the ``additional C code'' section of the file (@pxref{Grammar
-Layout, ,The Overall Layout of a Bison Grammar}).
+end, in the epilogue of the file
+(@pxref{Grammar Layout, ,The Overall Layout of a Bison Grammar}).
For a large project, you would probably have several source files, and use
@code{make} to arrange to recompile them.
@noindent
In this example the file was called @file{rpcalc.y} (for ``Reverse Polish
-CALCulator''). Bison produces a file named @file{@var{file_name}.tab.c},
-removing the @samp{.y} from the original file name. The file output by
+@sc{calc}ulator''). Bison produces a file named @file{@var{file_name}.tab.c},
+removing the @samp{.y} from the original file name. The file output by
Bison contains the source code for @code{yyparse}. The additional
functions in the input file (@code{yylex}, @code{yyerror} and @code{main})
are copied verbatim to the output.
-@node Rpcalc Compile, , Rpcalc Gen, RPN Calc
+@node Rpcalc Compile
@subsection Compiling the Parser File
@cindex compiling the parser
@example
@group
# @r{List files in current directory.}
-% ls
+$ @kbd{ls}
rpcalc.tab.c rpcalc.y
@end group
@group
# @r{Compile the Bison parser.}
# @r{@samp{-lm} tells compiler to search math library for @code{pow}.}
-% cc rpcalc.tab.c -lm -o rpcalc
+$ @kbd{cc -lm -o rpcalc rpcalc.tab.c}
@end group
@group
# @r{List files again.}
-% ls
+$ @kbd{ls}
rpcalc rpcalc.tab.c rpcalc.y
@end group
@end example
example session using @code{rpcalc}.
@example
-% rpcalc
-4 9 +
+$ @kbd{rpcalc}
+@kbd{4 9 +}
13
-3 7 + 3 4 5 *+-
+@kbd{3 7 + 3 4 5 *+-}
-13
-3 7 + 3 4 5 * + - n @r{Note the unary minus, @samp{n}}
+@kbd{3 7 + 3 4 5 * + - n} @r{Note the unary minus, @samp{n}}
13
-5 6 / 4 n +
+@kbd{5 6 / 4 n +}
-3.166666667
-3 4 ^ @r{Exponentiation}
+@kbd{3 4 ^} @r{Exponentiation}
81
-^D @r{End-of-file indicator}
-%
+@kbd{^D} @r{End-of-file indicator}
+$
@end example
-@node Infix Calc, Simple Error Recovery, RPN Calc, Examples
+@node Infix Calc
@section Infix Notation Calculator: @code{calc}
@cindex infix notation calculator
@cindex @code{calc}
#include <math.h>
%@}
-/* BISON Declarations */
+/* Bison Declarations */
%token NUM
%left '-' '+'
%left '*' '/'
declarations; the higher the line number of the declaration (lower on
the page or screen), the higher the precedence. Hence, exponentiation
has the highest precedence, unary minus (@code{NEG}) is next, followed
-by @samp{*} and @samp{/}, and so on. @xref{Precedence, ,Operator Precedence}.
+by @samp{*} and @samp{/}, and so on. @xref{Precedence, ,Operator
+Precedence}.
-The other important new feature is the @code{%prec} in the grammar section
-for the unary minus operator. The @code{%prec} simply instructs Bison that
-the rule @samp{| '-' exp} has the same precedence as @code{NEG}---in this
-case the next-to-highest. @xref{Contextual Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}.
+The other important new feature is the @code{%prec} in the grammar
+section for the unary minus operator. The @code{%prec} simply instructs
+Bison that the rule @samp{| '-' exp} has the same precedence as
+@code{NEG}---in this case the next-to-highest. @xref{Contextual
+Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}.
Here is a sample run of @file{calc.y}:
@need 500
@example
-% calc
-4 + 4.5 - (34/(8*3+-3))
+$ @kbd{calc}
+@kbd{4 + 4.5 - (34/(8*3+-3))}
6.880952381
--56 + 2
+@kbd{-56 + 2}
-54
-3 ^ 2
+@kbd{3 ^ 2}
9
@end example
-@node Simple Error Recovery, Multi-function Calc, Infix Calc, Examples
+@node Simple Error Recovery
@section Simple Error Recovery
@cindex error recovery, simple
@end example
This addition to the grammar allows for simple error recovery in the
-event of a parse error. If an expression that cannot be evaluated is
+event of a syntax error. If an expression that cannot be evaluated is
read, the error will be recognized by the third rule for @code{line},
and parsing will continue. (The @code{yyerror} function is still called
upon to print its message as well.) The action executes the statement
@code{yyerrok}, a macro defined automatically by Bison; its meaning is
that error recovery is complete (@pxref{Error Recovery}). Note the
difference between @code{yyerrok} and @code{yyerror}; neither one is a
-misprint.@refill
+misprint.
This form of error recovery deals with syntax errors. There are other
kinds of errors; for example, division by zero, which raises an exception
input. We won't discuss this issue further because it is not specific to
Bison programs.
-@node Multi-function Calc, Exercises, Simple Error Recovery, Examples
+@node Location Tracking Calc
+@section Location Tracking Calculator: @code{ltcalc}
+@cindex location tracking calculator
+@cindex @code{ltcalc}
+@cindex calculator, location tracking
+
+This example extends the infix notation calculator with location
+tracking. This feature will be used to improve the error messages. For
+the sake of clarity, this example is a simple integer calculator, since
+most of the work needed to use locations will be done in the lexical
+analyzer.
+
+@menu
+* Decls: Ltcalc Decls. Bison and C declarations for ltcalc.
+* Rules: Ltcalc Rules. Grammar rules for ltcalc, with explanations.
+* Lexer: Ltcalc Lexer. The lexical analyzer.
+@end menu
+
+@node Ltcalc Decls
+@subsection Declarations for @code{ltcalc}
+
+The C and Bison declarations for the location tracking calculator are
+the same as the declarations for the infix notation calculator.
+
+@example
+/* Location tracking calculator. */
+
+%@{
+#define YYSTYPE int
+#include <math.h>
+%@}
+
+/* Bison declarations. */
+%token NUM
+
+%left '-' '+'
+%left '*' '/'
+%left NEG
+%right '^'
+
+%% /* Grammar follows */
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+Note there are no declarations specific to locations. Defining a data
+type for storing locations is not needed: we will use the type provided
+by default (@pxref{Location Type, ,Data Types of Locations}), which is a
+four member structure with the following integer fields:
+@code{first_line}, @code{first_column}, @code{last_line} and
+@code{last_column}.
+
+@node Ltcalc Rules
+@subsection Grammar Rules for @code{ltcalc}
+
+Whether handling locations or not has no effect on the syntax of your
+language. Therefore, grammar rules for this example will be very close
+to those of the previous example: we will only modify them to benefit
+from the new information.
+
+Here, we will use locations to report divisions by zero, and locate the
+wrong expressions or subexpressions.
+
+@example
+@group
+input : /* empty */
+ | input line
+;
+@end group
+
+@group
+line : '\n'
+ | exp '\n' @{ printf ("%d\n", $1); @}
+;
+@end group
+
+@group
+exp : NUM @{ $$ = $1; @}
+ | exp '+' exp @{ $$ = $1 + $3; @}
+ | exp '-' exp @{ $$ = $1 - $3; @}
+ | exp '*' exp @{ $$ = $1 * $3; @}
+@end group
+@group
+ | exp '/' exp
+ @{
+ if ($3)
+ $$ = $1 / $3;
+ else
+ @{
+ $$ = 1;
+ fprintf (stderr, "%d.%d-%d.%d: division by zero",
+ @@3.first_line, @@3.first_column,
+ @@3.last_line, @@3.last_column);
+ @}
+ @}
+@end group
+@group
+ | '-' exp %preg NEG @{ $$ = -$2; @}
+ | exp '^' exp @{ $$ = pow ($1, $3); @}
+ | '(' exp ')' @{ $$ = $2; @}
+@end group
+@end example
+
+This code shows how to reach locations inside of semantic actions, by
+using the pseudo-variables @code{@@@var{n}} for rule components, and the
+pseudo-variable @code{@@$} for groupings.
+
+We don't need to assign a value to @code{@@$}: the output parser does it
+automatically. By default, before executing the C code of each action,
+@code{@@$} is set to range from the beginning of @code{@@1} to the end
+of @code{@@@var{n}}, for a rule with @var{n} components. This behavior
+can be redefined (@pxref{Location Default Action, , Default Action for
+Locations}), and for very specific rules, @code{@@$} can be computed by
+hand.
+
+@node Ltcalc Lexer
+@subsection The @code{ltcalc} Lexical Analyzer.
+
+Until now, we relied on Bison's defaults to enable location
+tracking. The next step is to rewrite the lexical analyzer, and make it
+able to feed the parser with the token locations, as it already does for
+semantic values.
+
+To this end, we must take into account every single character of the
+input text, to avoid the computed locations of being fuzzy or wrong:
+
+@example
+@group
+int
+yylex (void)
+@{
+ int c;
+@end group
+
+@group
+ /* Skip white space. */
+ while ((c = getchar ()) == ' ' || c == '\t')
+ ++yylloc.last_column;
+@end group
+
+@group
+ /* Step. */
+ yylloc.first_line = yylloc.last_line;
+ yylloc.first_column = yylloc.last_column;
+@end group
+
+@group
+ /* Process numbers. */
+ if (isdigit (c))
+ @{
+ yylval = c - '0';
+ ++yylloc.last_column;
+ while (isdigit (c = getchar ()))
+ @{
+ ++yylloc.last_column;
+ yylval = yylval * 10 + c - '0';
+ @}
+ ungetc (c, stdin);
+ return NUM;
+ @}
+@end group
+
+ /* Return end-of-input. */
+ if (c == EOF)
+ return 0;
+
+ /* Return a single char, and update location. */
+ if (c == '\n')
+ @{
+ ++yylloc.last_line;
+ yylloc.last_column = 0;
+ @}
+ else
+ ++yylloc.last_column;
+ return c;
+@}
+@end example
+
+Basically, the lexical analyzer performs the same processing as before:
+it skips blanks and tabs, and reads numbers or single-character tokens.
+In addition, it updates @code{yylloc}, the global variable (of type
+@code{YYLTYPE}) containing the token's location.
+
+Now, each time this function returns a token, the parser has its number
+as well as its semantic value, and its location in the text. The last
+needed change is to initialize @code{yylloc}, for example in the
+controlling function:
+
+@example
+@group
+int
+main (void)
+@{
+ yylloc.first_line = yylloc.last_line = 1;
+ yylloc.first_column = yylloc.last_column = 0;
+ return yyparse ();
+@}
+@end group
+@end example
+
+Remember that computing locations is not a matter of syntax. Every
+character must be associated to a location update, whether it is in
+valid input, in comments, in literal strings, and so on.
+
+@node Multi-function Calc
@section Multi-Function Calculator: @code{mfcalc}
@cindex multi-function calculator
@cindex @code{mfcalc}
Here is a sample session with the multi-function calculator:
@example
-% mfcalc
-pi = 3.141592653589
+$ @kbd{mfcalc}
+@kbd{pi = 3.141592653589}
3.1415926536
-sin(pi)
+@kbd{sin(pi)}
0.0000000000
-alpha = beta1 = 2.3
+@kbd{alpha = beta1 = 2.3}
2.3000000000
-alpha
+@kbd{alpha}
2.3000000000
-ln(alpha)
+@kbd{ln(alpha)}
0.8329091229
-exp(ln(beta1))
+@kbd{exp(ln(beta1))}
2.3000000000
-%
+$
@end example
Note that multiple assignment and nested function calls are permitted.
* Symtab: Mfcalc Symtab. Symbol table management subroutines.
@end menu
-@node Mfcalc Decl, Mfcalc Rules, , Multi-function Calc
+@node Mfcalc Decl
@subsection Declarations for @code{mfcalc}
Here are the C and Bison declarations for the multi-function calculator.
@smallexample
+@group
%@{
-#include <math.h> /* For math functions, cos(), sin(), etc. */
-#include "calc.h" /* Contains definition of `symrec' */
+#include <math.h> /* For math functions, cos(), sin(), etc. */
+#include "calc.h" /* Contains definition of `symrec' */
%@}
+@end group
+@group
%union @{
-double val; /* For returning numbers. */
-symrec *tptr; /* For returning symbol-table pointers */
+ double val; /* For returning numbers. */
+ symrec *tptr; /* For returning symbol-table pointers. */
@}
-
-%token <val> NUM /* Simple double precision number */
-%token <tptr> VAR FNCT /* Variable and Function */
+@end group
+%token <val> NUM /* Simple double precision number. */
+%token <tptr> VAR FNCT /* Variable and Function. */
%type <val> exp
+@group
%right '='
%left '-' '+'
%left '*' '/'
%left NEG /* Negation--unary minus */
%right '^' /* Exponentiation */
-
+@end group
/* Grammar follows */
-
%%
@end smallexample
declarations are augmented with information about their data type (placed
between angle brackets).
-The Bison construct @code{%type} is used for declaring nonterminal symbols,
-just as @code{%token} is used for declaring token types. We have not used
-@code{%type} before because nonterminal symbols are normally declared
-implicitly by the rules that define them. But @code{exp} must be declared
-explicitly so we can specify its value type. @xref{Type Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}.
+The Bison construct @code{%type} is used for declaring nonterminal
+symbols, just as @code{%token} is used for declaring token types. We
+have not used @code{%type} before because nonterminal symbols are
+normally declared implicitly by the rules that define them. But
+@code{exp} must be declared explicitly so we can specify its value type.
+@xref{Type Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}.
-@node Mfcalc Rules, Mfcalc Symtab, Mfcalc Decl, Multi-function Calc
+@node Mfcalc Rules
@subsection Grammar Rules for @code{mfcalc}
Here are the grammar rules for the multi-function calculator.
those which mention @code{VAR} or @code{FNCT}, are new.
@smallexample
+@group
input: /* empty */
| input line
;
+@end group
+@group
line:
'\n'
| exp '\n' @{ printf ("\t%.10g\n", $1); @}
| error '\n' @{ yyerrok; @}
;
+@end group
+@group
exp: NUM @{ $$ = $1; @}
| VAR @{ $$ = $1->value.var; @}
| VAR '=' exp @{ $$ = $3; $1->value.var = $3; @}
| exp '^' exp @{ $$ = pow ($1, $3); @}
| '(' exp ')' @{ $$ = $2; @}
;
+@end group
/* End of grammar */
%%
@end smallexample
-@node Mfcalc Symtab, , Mfcalc Rules, Multi-function Calc
+@node Mfcalc Symtab
@subsection The @code{mfcalc} Symbol Table
@cindex symbol table example
@smallexample
@group
-/* Fonctions type. */
+/* Function type. */
typedef double (*func_t) (double);
+@end group
+@group
/* Data type for links in the chain of symbols. */
struct symrec
@{
@code{init_table} as well:
@smallexample
-@group
#include <stdio.h>
+@group
int
main (void)
@{
@group
void
-yyerror (const char *s) /* Called by yyparse on error */
+yyerror (const char *s) /* Called by yyparse on error. */
@{
printf ("%s\n", s);
@}
+@end group
+@group
struct init
@{
char *fname;
"sqrt", sqrt,
0, 0
@};
+@end group
+@group
/* The symbol table: a chain of `struct symrec'. */
symrec *sym_table = (symrec *) 0;
@end group
@group
-/* Put arithmetic functions in table. */
+/* Put arithmetic functions in table. */
void
init_table (void)
@{
ptr->name = (char *) malloc (strlen (sym_name) + 1);
strcpy (ptr->name,sym_name);
ptr->type = sym_type;
- ptr->value.var = 0; /* set value to 0 even if fctn. */
+ ptr->value.var = 0; /* Set value to 0 even if fctn. */
ptr->next = (struct symrec *)sym_table;
sym_table = ptr;
return ptr;
(@code{VAR} or @code{FNCT}) is returned to @code{yyparse}. If it is not
already in the table, then it is installed as a @code{VAR} using
@code{putsym}. Again, a pointer and its type (which must be @code{VAR}) is
-returned to @code{yyparse}.@refill
+returned to @code{yyparse}.
No change is needed in the handling of numeric values and arithmetic
operators in @code{yylex}.
@smallexample
@group
#include <ctype.h>
+@end group
+@group
int
yylex (void)
@{
int c;
- /* Ignore whitespace, get first nonwhite character. */
+ /* Ignore white space, get first nonwhite character. */
while ((c = getchar ()) == ' ' || c == '\t');
if (c == EOF)
if (i == length)
@{
length *= 2;
- symbuf = (char *)realloc (symbuf, length + 1);
+ symbuf = (char *) realloc (symbuf, length + 1);
@}
/* Add this character to the buffer. */
symbuf[i++] = c;
@}
@end group
@group
- while (c != EOF && isalnum (c));
+ while (isalnum (c));
ungetc (c, stdin);
symbuf[i] = '\0';
@end group
@end smallexample
-This program is both powerful and flexible. You may easily add new
-functions, and it is a simple job to modify this code to install predefined
-variables such as @code{pi} or @code{e} as well.
+This program is both powerful and flexible. You may easily add new
+functions, and it is a simple job to modify this code to install
+predefined variables such as @code{pi} or @code{e} as well.
-@node Exercises, , Multi-function Calc, Examples
+@node Exercises
@section Exercises
@cindex exercises
uninitialized variable in any way except to store a value in it.
@end enumerate
-@node Grammar File, Interface, Examples, Top
+@node Grammar File
@chapter Bison Grammar Files
Bison takes as input a context-free grammar specification and produces a
* Multiple Parsers:: Putting more than one Bison parser in one program.
@end menu
-@node Grammar Outline, Symbols, , Grammar File
+@node Grammar Outline
@section Outline of a Bison Grammar
A Bison grammar file has four main sections, shown here with the
@example
%@{
-@var{C declarations}
+@var{Prologue}
%@}
@var{Bison declarations}
@var{Grammar rules}
%%
-@var{Additional C code}
+@var{Epilogue}
@end example
Comments enclosed in @samp{/* @dots{} */} may appear in any of the sections.
+As a @acronym{GNU} extension, @samp{//} introduces a comment that
+continues until end of line.
@menu
-* C Declarations:: Syntax and usage of the C declarations section.
+* Prologue:: Syntax and usage of the prologue.
* Bison Declarations:: Syntax and usage of the Bison declarations section.
* Grammar Rules:: Syntax and usage of the grammar rules section.
-* C Code:: Syntax and usage of the additional C code section.
+* Epilogue:: Syntax and usage of the epilogue.
@end menu
-@node C Declarations, Bison Declarations, , Grammar Outline
-@subsection The C Declarations Section
-@cindex C declarations section
-@cindex declarations, C
+@node Prologue, Bison Declarations, , Grammar Outline
+@subsection The prologue
+@cindex declarations section
+@cindex Prologue
+@cindex declarations
-The @var{C declarations} section contains macro definitions and
+The @var{Prologue} section contains macro definitions and
declarations of functions and variables that are used in the actions in the
grammar rules. These are copied to the beginning of the parser file so
that they precede the definition of @code{yyparse}. You can use
need any C declarations, you may omit the @samp{%@{} and @samp{%@}}
delimiters that bracket this section.
-@node Bison Declarations, Grammar Rules, C Declarations, Grammar Outline
+You may have more than one @var{Prologue} section, intermixed with the
+@var{Bison declarations}. This allows you to have C and Bison
+declarations that refer to each other. For example, the @code{%union}
+declaration may use types defined in a header file, and you may wish to
+prototype functions that take arguments of type @code{YYSTYPE}. This
+can be done with two @var{Prologue} blocks, one before and one after the
+@code{%union} declaration.
+
+@smallexample
+%@{
+#include <stdio.h>
+#include "ptypes.h"
+%@}
+
+%union @{
+ long n;
+ tree t; /* @r{@code{tree} is defined in @file{ptypes.h}.} */
+@}
+
+%@{
+static void yyprint(FILE *, int, YYSTYPE);
+#define YYPRINT(F, N, L) yyprint(F, N, L)
+%@}
+
+@dots{}
+@end smallexample
+
+@node Bison Declarations
@subsection The Bison Declarations Section
@cindex Bison declarations (introduction)
@cindex declarations, Bison (introduction)
In some simple grammars you may not need any declarations.
@xref{Declarations, ,Bison Declarations}.
-@node Grammar Rules, C Code, Bison Declarations, Grammar Outline
+@node Grammar Rules
@subsection The Grammar Rules Section
@cindex grammar rules section
@cindex rules section for grammar
@samp{%%} (which precedes the grammar rules) may never be omitted even
if it is the first thing in the file.
-@node C Code, , Grammar Rules, Grammar Outline
-@subsection The Additional C Code Section
+@node Epilogue, , Grammar Rules, Grammar Outline
+@subsection The epilogue
@cindex additional C code section
+@cindex epilogue
@cindex C code, section for additional
-The @var{additional C code} section is copied verbatim to the end of the
-parser file, just as the @var{C declarations} section is copied to the
-beginning. This is the most convenient place to put anything that you
-want to have in the parser file but which need not come before the
-definition of @code{yyparse}. For example, the definitions of
-@code{yylex} and @code{yyerror} often go here. @xref{Interface, ,Parser
-C-Language Interface}.
+The @var{Epilogue} is copied verbatim to the end of the parser file, just as
+the @var{Prologue} is copied to the beginning. This is the most convenient
+place to put anything that you want to have in the parser file but which need
+not come before the definition of @code{yyparse}. For example, the
+definitions of @code{yylex} and @code{yyerror} often go here.
+@xref{Interface, ,Parser C-Language Interface}.
If the last section is empty, you may omit the @samp{%%} that separates it
from the grammar rules.
The Bison parser itself contains many static variables whose names start
with @samp{yy} and many macros whose names start with @samp{YY}. It is a
good idea to avoid using any such names (except those documented in this
-manual) in the additional C code section of the grammar file.
+manual) in the epilogue of the grammar file.
-@node Symbols, Rules, Grammar Outline, Grammar File
+@node Symbols
@section Symbols, Terminal and Nonterminal
@cindex nonterminal symbol
@cindex terminal symbol
@itemize @bullet
@item
A @dfn{named token type} is written with an identifier, like an
-identifier in C. By convention, it should be all upper case. Each
+identifier in C@. By convention, it should be all upper case. Each
such name must be defined with a Bison declaration such as
@code{%token}. @xref{Token Decl, ,Token Type Names}.
All the usual escape sequences used in character literals in C can be
used in Bison as well, but you must not use the null character as a
-character literal because its ASCII code, zero, is the code @code{yylex}
-returns for end-of-input (@pxref{Calling Convention, ,Calling Convention
-for @code{yylex}}).
+character literal because its numeric code, zero, signifies
+end-of-input (@pxref{Calling Convention, ,Calling Convention
+for @code{yylex}}). Also, unlike standard C, trigraphs have no
+special meaning in Bison character literals, nor is backslash-newline
+allowed.
@item
@cindex string token
retrieve the token number for the literal string token from the
@code{yytname} table (@pxref{Calling Convention}).
-@strong{WARNING}: literal string tokens do not work in Yacc.
+@strong{Warning}: literal string tokens do not work in Yacc.
By convention, a literal string token is used only to represent a token
that consists of that particular string. Thus, you should use the token
read your program will be confused.
All the escape sequences used in string literals in C can be used in
-Bison as well. A literal string token must contain two or more
-characters; for a token containing just one character, use a character
-token (see above).
+Bison as well. However, unlike Standard C, trigraphs have no special
+meaning in Bison string literals, nor is backslash-newline allowed. A
+literal string token must contain two or more characters; for a token
+containing just one character, use a character token (see above).
@end itemize
How you choose to write a terminal symbol has no effect on its
grammatical meaning. That depends only on where it appears in rules and
on when the parser function returns that symbol.
-The value returned by @code{yylex} is always one of the terminal symbols
-(or 0 for end-of-input). Whichever way you write the token type in the
-grammar rules, you write it the same way in the definition of @code{yylex}.
-The numeric code for a character token type is simply the ASCII code for
-the character, so @code{yylex} can use the identical character constant to
-generate the requisite code. Each named token type becomes a C macro in
+The value returned by @code{yylex} is always one of the terminal
+symbols, except that a zero or negative value signifies end-of-input.
+Whichever way you write the token type in the grammar rules, you write
+it the same way in the definition of @code{yylex}. The numeric code
+for a character token type is simply the positive numeric code of the
+character, so @code{yylex} can use the identical value to generate the
+requisite code, though you may need to convert it to @code{unsigned
+char} to avoid sign-extension on hosts where @code{char} is signed.
+Each named token type becomes a C macro in
the parser file, so @code{yylex} can use the name to stand for the code.
(This is why periods don't make sense in terminal symbols.)
@xref{Calling Convention, ,Calling Convention for @code{yylex}}.
into a separate header file @file{@var{name}.tab.h} which you can include
in the other source files that need it. @xref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}.
+If you want to write a grammar that is portable to any Standard C
+host, you must use only non-null character tokens taken from the basic
+execution character set of Standard C@. This set consists of the ten
+digits, the 52 lower- and upper-case English letters, and the
+characters in the following C-language string:
+
+@example
+"\a\b\t\n\v\f\r !\"#%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?[\\]^_@{|@}~"
+@end example
+
+The @code{yylex} function and Bison must use a consistent character
+set and encoding for character tokens. For example, if you run Bison in an
+@acronym{ASCII} environment, but then compile and run the resulting program
+in an environment that uses an incompatible character set like
+@acronym{EBCDIC}, the resulting program may not work because the
+tables generated by Bison will assume @acronym{ASCII} numeric values for
+character tokens. It is standard
+practice for software distributions to contain C source files that
+were generated by Bison in an @acronym{ASCII} environment, so installers on
+platforms that are incompatible with @acronym{ASCII} must rebuild those
+files before compiling them.
+
The symbol @code{error} is a terminal symbol reserved for error recovery
(@pxref{Error Recovery}); you shouldn't use it for any other purpose.
-In particular, @code{yylex} should never return this value.
+In particular, @code{yylex} should never return this value. The default
+value of the error token is 256, unless you explicitly assigned 256 to
+one of your tokens with a @code{%token} declaration.
-@node Rules, Recursion, Symbols, Grammar File
+@node Rules
@section Syntax of Grammar Rules
@cindex rule syntax
@cindex grammar rule syntax
says that two groupings of type @code{exp}, with a @samp{+} token in between,
can be combined into a larger grouping of type @code{exp}.
-Whitespace in rules is significant only to separate symbols. You can add
-extra whitespace as you wish.
+White space in rules is significant only to separate symbols. You can add
+extra white space as you wish.
Scattered among the components can be @var{actions} that determine
the semantics of the rule. An action looks like this:
It is customary to write a comment @samp{/* empty */} in each rule
with no components.
-@node Recursion, Semantics, Rules, Grammar File
+@node Recursion
@section Recursive Rules
@cindex recursive rule
@end example
@noindent
-Any kind of sequence can be defined using either left recursion or
-right recursion, but you should always use left recursion, because it
-can parse a sequence of any number of elements with bounded stack
-space. Right recursion uses up space on the Bison stack in proportion
-to the number of elements in the sequence, because all the elements
-must be shifted onto the stack before the rule can be applied even
-once. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm }, for
-further explanation of this.
+Any kind of sequence can be defined using either left recursion or right
+recursion, but you should always use left recursion, because it can
+parse a sequence of any number of elements with bounded stack space.
+Right recursion uses up space on the Bison stack in proportion to the
+number of elements in the sequence, because all the elements must be
+shifted onto the stack before the rule can be applied even once.
+@xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm}, for further explanation
+of this.
@cindex mutual recursion
@dfn{Indirect} or @dfn{mutual} recursion occurs when the result of the
defines two mutually-recursive nonterminals, since each refers to the
other.
-@node Semantics, Locations, Recursion, Grammar File
+@node Semantics
@section Defining Language Semantics
@cindex defining language semantics
@cindex language semantics, defining
action in the middle of a rule.
@end menu
-@node Value Type, Multiple Types, , Semantics
+@node Value Type
@subsection Data Types of Semantic Values
@cindex semantic value type
@cindex value type, semantic
In a simple program it may be sufficient to use the same data type for
the semantic values of all language constructs. This was true in the
-RPN and infix calculator examples (@pxref{RPN Calc, ,Reverse Polish Notation Calculator}).
+@acronym{RPN} and infix calculator examples (@pxref{RPN Calc, ,Reverse Polish
+Notation Calculator}).
Bison's default is to use type @code{int} for all semantic values. To
specify some other type, define @code{YYSTYPE} as a macro, like this:
@end example
@noindent
-This macro definition must go in the C declarations section of the grammar
-file (@pxref{Grammar Outline, ,Outline of a Bison Grammar}).
+This macro definition must go in the prologue of the grammar file
+(@pxref{Grammar Outline, ,Outline of a Bison Grammar}).
-@node Multiple Types, Actions, Value Type, Semantics
+@node Multiple Types
@subsection More Than One Value Type
In most programs, you will need different data types for different kinds
@itemize @bullet
@item
Specify the entire collection of possible data types, with the
-@code{%union} Bison declaration (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}).
+@code{%union} Bison declaration (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of
+Value Types}).
@item
Choose one of those types for each symbol (terminal or nonterminal) for
Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}).
@end itemize
-@node Actions, Action Types, Multiple Types, Semantics
+@node Actions
@subsection Actions
@cindex action
@vindex $$
semantic values associated with tokens or smaller groupings.
An action consists of C statements surrounded by braces, much like a
-compound statement in C. It can be placed at any position in the rule; it
-is executed at that position. Most rules have just one action at the end
-of the rule, following all the components. Actions in the middle of a rule
-are tricky and used only for special purposes (@pxref{Mid-Rule Actions, ,Actions in Mid-Rule}).
+compound statement in C@. An action can contain any sequence of C
+statements. Bison does not look for trigraphs, though, so if your C
+code uses trigraphs you should ensure that they do not affect the
+nesting of braces or the boundaries of comments, strings, or character
+literals.
+
+An action can be placed at any position in the rule;
+it is executed at that position. Most rules have just one action at the
+end of the rule, following all the components. Actions in the middle of
+a rule are tricky and used only for special purposes (@pxref{Mid-Rule
+Actions, ,Actions in Mid-Rule}).
The C code in an action can refer to the semantic values of the components
matched by the rule with the construct @code{$@var{n}}, which stands for
The sum is stored into @code{$$} so that it becomes the semantic value of
the addition-expression just recognized by the rule. If there were a
useful semantic value associated with the @samp{+} token, it could be
-referred to as @code{$2}.@refill
+referred to as @code{$2}.
+
+Note that the vertical-bar character @samp{|} is really a rule
+separator, and actions are attached to a single rule. This is a
+difference with tools like Flex, for which @samp{|} stands for either
+``or'', or ``the same action as that of the next rule''. In the
+following example, the action is triggered only when @samp{b} is found:
+
+@example
+@group
+a-or-b: 'a'|'b' @{ a_or_b_found = 1; @};
+@end group
+@end example
@cindex default action
If you don't specify an action for a rule, Bison supplies a default:
-@w{@code{$$ = $1}.} Thus, the value of the first symbol in the rule becomes
-the value of the whole rule. Of course, the default rule is valid only
-if the two data types match. There is no meaningful default action for
-an empty rule; every empty rule must have an explicit action unless the
-rule's value does not matter.
+@w{@code{$$ = $1}.} Thus, the value of the first symbol in the rule
+becomes the value of the whole rule. Of course, the default action is
+valid only if the two data types match. There is no meaningful default
+action for an empty rule; every empty rule must have an explicit action
+unless the rule's value does not matter.
@code{$@var{n}} with @var{n} zero or negative is allowed for reference
to tokens and groupings on the stack @emph{before} those that match the
always refers to the @code{expr} which precedes @code{bar} in the
definition of @code{foo}.
-@node Action Types, Mid-Rule Actions, Actions, Semantics
+@node Action Types
@subsection Data Types of Values in Actions
@cindex action data types
@cindex data types in actions
must declare a choice among these types for each terminal or nonterminal
symbol that can have a semantic value. Then each time you use @code{$$} or
@code{$@var{n}}, its data type is determined by which symbol it refers to
-in the rule. In this example,@refill
+in the rule. In this example,
@example
@group
@code{$1} and @code{$3} refer to instances of @code{exp}, so they all
have the data type declared for the nonterminal symbol @code{exp}. If
@code{$2} were used, it would have the data type declared for the
-terminal symbol @code{'+'}, whatever that might be.@refill
+terminal symbol @code{'+'}, whatever that might be.
Alternatively, you can specify the data type when you refer to the value,
by inserting @samp{<@var{type}>} after the @samp{$} at the beginning of the
then you can write @code{$<itype>1} to refer to the first subunit of the
rule as an integer, or @code{$<dtype>1} to refer to it as a double.
-@node Mid-Rule Actions, , Action Types, Semantics
+@node Mid-Rule Actions
@subsection Actions in Mid-Rule
@cindex actions in mid-rule
@cindex mid-rule actions
converted to an end-of-rule action in this way, and this is what Bison
actually does to implement mid-rule actions.
-@node Locations, Declarations, Semantics, Grammar File
+@node Locations
@section Tracking Locations
@cindex location
@cindex textual position
@cindex position, textual
Though grammar rules and semantic actions are enough to write a fully
-functional parser, it can be useful to process some additionnal informations,
+functional parser, it can be useful to process some additional information,
especially symbol locations.
@c (terminal or not) ?
-The way locations are handled is defined by providing a data type, and actions
-to take when rules are matched.
+The way locations are handled is defined by providing a data type, and
+actions to take when rules are matched.
@menu
* Location Type:: Specifying a data type for locations.
* Location Default Action:: Defining a general way to compute locations.
@end menu
-@node Location Type, Actions and Locations, , Locations
+@node Location Type
@subsection Data Type of Locations
@cindex data type of locations
@cindex default location type
@}
@end example
-@node Actions and Locations, Location Default Action, Location Type, Locations
+@node Actions and Locations
@subsection Actions and Locations
@cindex location actions
@cindex actions, location
describing the behavior of the output parser with locations.
The most obvious way for building locations of syntactic groupings is very
-similar to the way semantic values are computed. In a given rule, several
+similar to the way semantic values are computed. In a given rule, several
constructs can be used to access the locations of the elements being matched.
The location of the @var{n}th component of the right hand side is
@code{@@@var{n}}, while the location of the left hand side grouping is
@end example
As for semantic values, there is a default action for locations that is
-run each time a rule is matched. It sets the beginning of @code{@@$} to the
+run each time a rule is matched. It sets the beginning of @code{@@$} to the
beginning of the first symbol, and the end of @code{@@$} to the end of the
last symbol.
-With this default action, the location tracking can be fully automatic. The
+With this default action, the location tracking can be fully automatic. The
example above simply rewrites this way:
@example
@end group
@end example
-@node Location Default Action, , Actions and Locations, Locations
+@node Location Default Action
@subsection Default Action for Locations
@vindex YYLLOC_DEFAULT
-Actually, actions are not the best place to compute locations. Since locations
-are much more general than semantic values, there is room in the output parser
-to redefine the default action to take for each rule. The
-@code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT} macro is called each time a rule is matched, before the
-associated action is run.
+Actually, actions are not the best place to compute locations. Since
+locations are much more general than semantic values, there is room in
+the output parser to redefine the default action to take for each
+rule. The @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT} macro is invoked each time a rule is
+matched, before the associated action is run.
Most of the time, this macro is general enough to suppress location
dedicated code from semantic actions.
-The @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT} macro takes three parameters. The first one is
-the location of the grouping (the result of the computation). The second one
+The @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT} macro takes three parameters. The first one is
+the location of the grouping (the result of the computation). The second one
is an array holding locations of all right hand side elements of the rule
-being matched. The last one is the size of the right hand side rule.
+being matched. The last one is the size of the right hand side rule.
-By default, it is defined this way:
+By default, it is defined this way for simple @acronym{LALR}(1) parsers:
@example
@group
-#define YYLLOC_DEFAULT(Current, Rhs, N) \
- Current.last_line = Rhs[N].last_line; \
- Current.last_column = Rhs[N].last_column;
+#define YYLLOC_DEFAULT(Current, Rhs, N) \
+ Current.first_line = Rhs[1].first_line; \
+ Current.first_column = Rhs[1].first_column; \
+ Current.last_line = Rhs[N].last_line; \
+ Current.last_column = Rhs[N].last_column;
+@end group
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+and like this for @acronym{GLR} parsers:
+
+@example
+@group
+#define YYLLOC_DEFAULT(Current, Rhs, N) \
+ Current.first_line = YYRHSLOC(Rhs,1).first_line; \
+ Current.first_column = YYRHSLOC(Rhs,1).first_column; \
+ Current.last_line = YYRHSLOC(Rhs,N).last_line; \
+ Current.last_column = YYRHSLOC(Rhs,N).last_column;
@end group
@end example
@itemize @bullet
@item
-All arguments are free of side-effects. However, only the first one (the
+All arguments are free of side-effects. However, only the first one (the
result) should be modified by @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT}.
@item
-Before @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT} is executed, the output parser sets @code{@@$}
-to @code{@@1}.
-
-@item
-For consistency with semantic actions, valid indexes for the location array
-range from 1 to @var{n}.
+For consistency with semantic actions, valid indexes for the location
+array range from 1 to @var{n}.
@end itemize
-@node Declarations, Multiple Parsers, Locations, Grammar File
+@node Declarations
@section Bison Declarations
@cindex declarations, Bison
@cindex Bison declarations
The first rule in the file also specifies the start symbol, by default.
If you want some other symbol to be the start symbol, you must declare
-it explicitly (@pxref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}).
+it explicitly (@pxref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free
+Grammars}).
@menu
* Token Decl:: Declaring terminal symbols.
* Precedence Decl:: Declaring terminals with precedence and associativity.
* Union Decl:: Declaring the set of all semantic value types.
* Type Decl:: Declaring the choice of type for a nonterminal symbol.
+* Destructor Decl:: Declaring how symbols are freed.
* Expect Decl:: Suppressing warnings about shift/reduce conflicts.
* Start Decl:: Specifying the start symbol.
* Pure Decl:: Requesting a reentrant parser.
* Decl Summary:: Table of all Bison declarations.
@end menu
-@node Token Decl, Precedence Decl, , Declarations
+@node Token Decl
@subsection Token Type Names
@cindex declaring token type names
@cindex token type names, declaring
@noindent
It is generally best, however, to let Bison choose the numeric codes for
all token types. Bison will automatically select codes that don't conflict
-with each other or with ASCII characters.
+with each other or with normal characters.
In the event that the stack type is a union, you must augment the
@code{%token} or other token declaration to include the data type
-alternative delimited by angle-brackets (@pxref{Multiple Types, ,More Than One Value Type}).
+alternative delimited by angle-brackets (@pxref{Multiple Types, ,More
+Than One Value Type}).
For example:
@code{yylex} function can use the token name or the literal string to
obtain the token type code number (@pxref{Calling Convention}).
-@node Precedence Decl, Union Decl, Token Decl, Declarations
+@node Precedence Decl
@subsection Operator Precedence
@cindex precedence declarations
@cindex declaring operator precedence
Use the @code{%left}, @code{%right} or @code{%nonassoc} declaration to
declare a token and specify its precedence and associativity, all at
once. These are called @dfn{precedence declarations}.
-@xref{Precedence, ,Operator Precedence}, for general information on operator precedence.
+@xref{Precedence, ,Operator Precedence}, for general information on
+operator precedence.
The syntax of a precedence declaration is the same as that of
@code{%token}: either
the one declared later has the higher precedence and is grouped first.
@end itemize
-@node Union Decl, Type Decl, Precedence Decl, Declarations
+@node Union Decl
@subsection The Collection of Value Types
@cindex declaring value types
@cindex value types, declaring
Note that, unlike making a @code{union} declaration in C, you do not write
a semicolon after the closing brace.
-@node Type Decl, Expect Decl, Union Decl, Declarations
+@node Type Decl
@subsection Nonterminal Symbols
@cindex declaring value types, nonterminals
@cindex value types, nonterminals, declaring
@end example
@noindent
-Here @var{nonterminal} is the name of a nonterminal symbol, and @var{type}
-is the name given in the @code{%union} to the alternative that you want
-(@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}). You can give any number of nonterminal symbols in
-the same @code{%type} declaration, if they have the same value type. Use
-spaces to separate the symbol names.
+Here @var{nonterminal} is the name of a nonterminal symbol, and
+@var{type} is the name given in the @code{%union} to the alternative
+that you want (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}). You
+can give any number of nonterminal symbols in the same @code{%type}
+declaration, if they have the same value type. Use spaces to separate
+the symbol names.
You can also declare the value type of a terminal symbol. To do this,
use the same @code{<@var{type}>} construction in a declaration for the
terminal symbol. All kinds of token declarations allow
@code{<@var{type}>}.
-@node Expect Decl, Start Decl, Type Decl, Declarations
+@node Destructor Decl
+@subsection Freeing Discarded Symbols
+@cindex freeing discarded symbols
+@findex %destructor
+
+Some symbols can be discarded by the parser, typically during error
+recovery (@pxref{Error Recovery}). Basically, during error recovery,
+embarrassing symbols already pushed on the stack, and embarrassing
+tokens coming from the rest of the file are thrown away until the parser
+falls on its feet. If these symbols convey heap based information, this
+memory is lost. While this behavior is tolerable for batch parsers,
+such as in compilers, it is unacceptable for parsers that can
+possibility ``never end'' such as shells, or implementations of
+communication protocols.
+
+The @code{%destructor} directive allows for the definition of code that
+is called when a symbol is thrown away.
+
+@deffn {Directive} %destructor @{ @var{code} @} @var{symbols}
+@findex %destructor
+Declare that the @var{code} must be invoked for each of the
+@var{symbols} that will be discarded by the parser. The @var{code}
+should use @code{$$} to designate the semantic value associated to the
+@var{symbols}. The additional parser parameters are also avaible
+(@pxref{Parser Function, , The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}).
+
+@strong{Warning:} as of Bison 1.875, this feature is still considered as
+experimental, as there was not enough users feedback. In particular,
+the syntax might still change.
+@end deffn
+
+For instance:
+
+@smallexample
+%union
+@{
+ char *string;
+@}
+%token <string> STRING
+%type <string> string
+%destructor @{ free ($$); @} STRING string
+@end smallexample
+
+@noindent
+guarantees that when a @code{STRING} or a @code{string} will be discarded,
+its associated memory will be freed.
+
+Note that in the future, Bison might also consider that right hand side
+members that are not mentioned in the action can be destroyed. For
+instance, in:
+
+@smallexample
+comment: "/*" STRING "*/";
+@end smallexample
+
+@noindent
+the parser is entitled to destroy the semantic value of the
+@code{string}. Of course, this will not apply to the default action;
+compare:
+
+@smallexample
+typeless: string; // $$ = $1 does not apply; $1 is destroyed.
+typefull: string; // $$ = $1 applies, $1 is not destroyed.
+@end smallexample
+
+@node Expect Decl
@subsection Suppressing Conflict Warnings
@cindex suppressing conflict warnings
@cindex preventing warnings about conflicts
@findex %expect
Bison normally warns if there are any conflicts in the grammar
-(@pxref{Shift/Reduce, ,Shift/Reduce Conflicts}), but most real grammars have harmless shift/reduce
-conflicts which are resolved in a predictable way and would be difficult to
-eliminate. It is desirable to suppress the warning about these conflicts
-unless the number of conflicts changes. You can do this with the
-@code{%expect} declaration.
+(@pxref{Shift/Reduce, ,Shift/Reduce Conflicts}), but most real grammars
+have harmless shift/reduce conflicts which are resolved in a predictable
+way and would be difficult to eliminate. It is desirable to suppress
+the warning about these conflicts unless the number of conflicts
+changes. You can do this with the @code{%expect} declaration.
The declaration looks like this:
%expect @var{n}
@end example
-Here @var{n} is a decimal integer. The declaration says there should be no
-warning if there are @var{n} shift/reduce conflicts and no reduce/reduce
-conflicts. The usual warning is given if there are either more or fewer
-conflicts, or if there are any reduce/reduce conflicts.
+Here @var{n} is a decimal integer. The declaration says there should be
+no warning if there are @var{n} shift/reduce conflicts and no
+reduce/reduce conflicts. An error, instead of the usual warning, is
+given if there are either more or fewer conflicts, or if there are any
+reduce/reduce conflicts.
In general, using @code{%expect} involves these steps:
it will warn you again if changes in the grammar result in additional
conflicts.
-@node Start Decl, Pure Decl, Expect Decl, Declarations
+@node Start Decl
@subsection The Start-Symbol
@cindex declaring the start symbol
@cindex start symbol, declaring
%start @var{symbol}
@end example
-@node Pure Decl, Decl Summary, Start Decl, Declarations
+@node Pure Decl
@subsection A Pure (Reentrant) Parser
@cindex reentrant parser
@cindex pure parser
-@findex %pure_parser
+@findex %pure-parser
A @dfn{reentrant} program is one which does not alter in the course of
execution; in other words, it consists entirely of @dfn{pure} (read-only)
program must be called only within interlocks.
Normally, Bison generates a parser which is not reentrant. This is
-suitable for most uses, and it permits compatibility with YACC. (The
-standard YACC interfaces are inherently nonreentrant, because they use
+suitable for most uses, and it permits compatibility with Yacc. (The
+standard Yacc interfaces are inherently nonreentrant, because they use
statically allocated variables for communication with @code{yylex},
including @code{yylval} and @code{yylloc}.)
Alternatively, you can generate a pure, reentrant parser. The Bison
-declaration @code{%pure_parser} says that you want the parser to be
+declaration @code{%pure-parser} says that you want the parser to be
reentrant. It looks like this:
@example
-%pure_parser
+%pure-parser
@end example
The result is that the communication variables @code{yylval} and
You can generate either a pure parser or a nonreentrant parser from any
valid grammar.
-@node Decl Summary, , Pure Decl, Declarations
+@node Decl Summary
@subsection Bison Declaration Summary
@cindex Bison declaration summary
@cindex declaration summary
@cindex summary, Bison declaration
-Here is a summary of all Bison declarations:
+Here is a summary of the declarations used to define a grammar:
-@table @code
-@item %union
+@deffn {Directive} %union
Declare the collection of data types that semantic values may have
(@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}).
+@end deffn
-@item %token
+@deffn {Directive} %token
Declare a terminal symbol (token type name) with no precedence
or associativity specified (@pxref{Token Decl, ,Token Type Names}).
+@end deffn
-@item %right
+@deffn {Directive} %right
Declare a terminal symbol (token type name) that is right-associative
(@pxref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}).
+@end deffn
-@item %left
+@deffn {Directive} %left
Declare a terminal symbol (token type name) that is left-associative
(@pxref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}).
+@end deffn
-@item %nonassoc
+@deffn {Directive} %nonassoc
Declare a terminal symbol (token type name) that is nonassociative
(using it in a way that would be associative is a syntax error)
+@end deffn
(@pxref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}).
-@item %type
+@deffn {Directive} %type
Declare the type of semantic values for a nonterminal symbol
(@pxref{Type Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}).
+@end deffn
-@item %start
+@deffn {Directive} %start
Specify the grammar's start symbol (@pxref{Start Decl, ,The
Start-Symbol}).
+@end deffn
-@item %expect
+@deffn {Directive} %expect
Declare the expected number of shift-reduce conflicts
(@pxref{Expect Decl, ,Suppressing Conflict Warnings}).
+@end deffn
-@item %yacc
-@itemx %fixed_output_files
-Pretend the option @option{--yacc} was given, i.e., imitate Yacc,
-including its naming conventions. @xref{Bison Options}, for more.
-@item %locations
+@sp 1
+@noindent
+In order to change the behavior of @command{bison}, use the following
+directives:
+
+@deffn {Directive} %debug
+In the parser file, define the macro @code{YYDEBUG} to 1 if it is not
+already defined, so that the debugging facilities are compiled.
+@end deffn
+@xref{Tracing, ,Tracing Your Parser}.
+
+@deffn {Directive} %defines
+Write an extra output file containing macro definitions for the token
+type names defined in the grammar and the semantic value type
+@code{YYSTYPE}, as well as a few @code{extern} variable declarations.
+
+If the parser output file is named @file{@var{name}.c} then this file
+is named @file{@var{name}.h}.
+
+This output file is essential if you wish to put the definition of
+@code{yylex} in a separate source file, because @code{yylex} needs to
+be able to refer to token type codes and the variable
+@code{yylval}. @xref{Token Values, ,Semantic Values of Tokens}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %destructor
+Specifying how the parser should reclaim the memory associated to
+discarded symbols. @xref{Destructor Decl, , Freeing Discarded Symbols}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %file-prefix="@var{prefix}"
+Specify a prefix to use for all Bison output file names. The names are
+chosen as if the input file were named @file{@var{prefix}.y}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %locations
Generate the code processing the locations (@pxref{Action Features,
,Special Features for Use in Actions}). This mode is enabled as soon as
the grammar uses the special @samp{@@@var{n}} tokens, but if your
grammar does not use it, using @samp{%locations} allows for more
-accurate parse error messages.
+accurate syntax error messages.
+@end deffn
-@item %pure_parser
-Request a pure (reentrant) parser program (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure
-(Reentrant) Parser}).
-
-@item %no_parser
+@deffn {Directive} %name-prefix="@var{prefix}"
+Rename the external symbols used in the parser so that they start with
+@var{prefix} instead of @samp{yy}. The precise list of symbols renamed
+is @code{yyparse}, @code{yylex}, @code{yyerror}, @code{yynerrs},
+@code{yylval}, @code{yylloc}, @code{yychar}, @code{yydebug}, and
+possible @code{yylloc}. For example, if you use
+@samp{%name-prefix="c_"}, the names become @code{c_parse}, @code{c_lex},
+and so on. @xref{Multiple Parsers, ,Multiple Parsers in the Same
+Program}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %no-parser
Do not include any C code in the parser file; generate tables only. The
parser file contains just @code{#define} directives and static variable
declarations.
This option also tells Bison to write the C code for the grammar actions
into a file named @file{@var{filename}.act}, in the form of a
brace-surrounded body fit for a @code{switch} statement.
+@end deffn
-@item %no_lines
+@deffn {Directive} %no-lines
Don't generate any @code{#line} preprocessor commands in the parser
file. Ordinarily Bison writes these commands in the parser file so that
the C compiler and debuggers will associate errors and object code with
your source file (the grammar file). This directive causes them to
associate errors with the parser file, treating it an independent source
file in its own right.
+@end deffn
-@item %debug
-Output a definition of the macro @code{YYDEBUG} into the parser file, so
-that the debugging facilities are compiled. @xref{Debugging, ,Debugging
-Your Parser}.
-
-@item %defines
-Write an extra output file containing macro definitions for the token
-type names defined in the grammar and the semantic value type
-@code{YYSTYPE}, as well as a few @code{extern} variable declarations.
-
-If the parser output file is named @file{@var{name}.c} then this file
-is named @file{@var{name}.h}.@refill
-
-This output file is essential if you wish to put the definition of
-@code{yylex} in a separate source file, because @code{yylex} needs to
-be able to refer to token type codes and the variable
-@code{yylval}. @xref{Token Values, ,Semantic Values of Tokens}.@refill
-
-@item %verbose
-Write an extra output file containing verbose descriptions of the
-parser states and what is done for each type of look-ahead token in
-that state.
+@deffn {Directive} %output="@var{filename}"
+Specify the @var{filename} for the parser file.
+@end deffn
-This file also describes all the conflicts, both those resolved by
-operator precedence and the unresolved ones.
-
-The file's name is made by removing @samp{.tab.c} or @samp{.c} from
-the parser output file name, and adding @samp{.output} instead.@refill
-
-Therefore, if the input file is @file{foo.y}, then the parser file is
-called @file{foo.tab.c} by default. As a consequence, the verbose
-output file is called @file{foo.output}.@refill
+@deffn {Directive} %pure-parser
+Request a pure (reentrant) parser program (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure
+(Reentrant) Parser}).
+@end deffn
-@item %token_table
+@deffn {Directive} %token-table
Generate an array of token names in the parser file. The name of the
array is @code{yytname}; @code{yytname[@var{i}]} is the name of the
-token whose internal Bison token code number is @var{i}. The first three
-elements of @code{yytname} are always @code{"$"}, @code{"error"}, and
-@code{"$illegal"}; after these come the symbols defined in the grammar
-file.
+token whose internal Bison token code number is @var{i}. The first
+three elements of @code{yytname} are always @code{"$end"},
+@code{"error"}, and @code{"$undefined"}; after these come the symbols
+defined in the grammar file.
For single-character literal tokens and literal string tokens, the name
in the table includes the single-quote or double-quote characters: for
contains @samp{"*"*"}. (In C, that would be written as
@code{"\"*\"*\""}).
-When you specify @code{%token_table}, Bison also generates macro
+When you specify @code{%token-table}, Bison also generates macro
definitions for macros @code{YYNTOKENS}, @code{YYNNTS}, and
@code{YYNRULES}, and @code{YYNSTATES}:
@item YYNSTATES
The number of parser states (@pxref{Parser States}).
@end table
-@end table
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %verbose
+Write an extra output file containing verbose descriptions of the
+parser states and what is done for each type of look-ahead token in
+that state. @xref{Understanding, , Understanding Your Parser}, for more
+information.
+@end deffn
-@node Multiple Parsers,, Declarations, Grammar File
+@deffn {Directive} %yacc
+Pretend the option @option{--yacc} was given, i.e., imitate Yacc,
+including its naming conventions. @xref{Bison Options}, for more.
+@end deffn
+
+
+@node Multiple Parsers
@section Multiple Parsers in the Same Program
Most programs that use Bison parse only one language and therefore contain
between different definitions of @code{yyparse}, @code{yylval}, and so on.
The easy way to do this is to use the option @samp{-p @var{prefix}}
-(@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}). This renames the interface functions and
-variables of the Bison parser to start with @var{prefix} instead of
-@samp{yy}. You can use this to give each parser distinct names that do
-not conflict.
+(@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}). This renames the interface
+functions and variables of the Bison parser to start with @var{prefix}
+instead of @samp{yy}. You can use this to give each parser distinct
+names that do not conflict.
The precise list of symbols renamed is @code{yyparse}, @code{yylex},
-@code{yyerror}, @code{yynerrs}, @code{yylval}, @code{yychar} and
-@code{yydebug}. For example, if you use @samp{-p c}, the names become
-@code{cparse}, @code{clex}, and so on.
+@code{yyerror}, @code{yynerrs}, @code{yylval}, @code{yylloc},
+@code{yychar} and @code{yydebug}. For example, if you use @samp{-p c},
+the names become @code{cparse}, @code{clex}, and so on.
@strong{All the other variables and macros associated with Bison are not
renamed.} These others are not global; there is no conflict if the same
@code{@var{prefix}parse}, and so on. This effectively substitutes one
name for the other in the entire parser file.
-@node Interface, Algorithm, Grammar File, Top
+@node Interface
@chapter Parser C-Language Interface
@cindex C-language interface
@cindex interface
Keep in mind that the parser uses many C identifiers starting with
@samp{yy} and @samp{YY} for internal purposes. If you use such an
-identifier (aside from those in this manual) in an action or in additional
-C code in the grammar file, you are likely to run into trouble.
+identifier (aside from those in this manual) in an action or in epilogue
+in the grammar file, you are likely to run into trouble.
@menu
* Parser Function:: How to call @code{yyparse} and what it returns.
* Action Features:: Special features for use in actions.
@end menu
-@node Parser Function, Lexical, , Interface
+@node Parser Function
@section The Parser Function @code{yyparse}
@findex yyparse
write an action which directs @code{yyparse} to return immediately
without reading further.
+
+@deftypefun int yyparse (void)
The value returned by @code{yyparse} is 0 if parsing was successful (return
is due to end-of-input).
The value is 1 if parsing failed (return is due to a syntax error).
+@end deftypefun
In an action, you can cause immediate return from @code{yyparse} by using
these macros:
-@table @code
-@item YYACCEPT
-@findex YYACCEPT
-Return immediately with value 0 (to report success).
+@defmac YYACCEPT
+@findex YYACCEPT
+Return immediately with value 0 (to report success).
+@end defmac
+
+@defmac YYABORT
+@findex YYABORT
+Return immediately with value 1 (to report failure).
+@end defmac
+
+If you use a reentrant parser, you can optionally pass additional
+parameter information to it in a reentrant way. To do so, use the
+declaration @code{%parse-param}:
+
+@deffn {Directive} %parse-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@}, @{@var{argument-name}@}
+@findex %parse-param
+Declare that @code{argument-name} is an additional @code{yyparse}
+argument. This argument is also passed to @code{yyerror}. The
+@var{argument-declaration} is used when declaring functions or
+prototypes.
+@end deffn
+
+Here's an example. Write this in the parser:
+
+@example
+%parse-param @{int *nastiness@}, @{nastiness@}
+%parse-param @{int *randomness@}, @{randomness@}
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+Then call the parser like this:
+
+@example
+@{
+ int nastiness, randomness;
+ @dots{} /* @r{Store proper data in @code{nastiness} and @code{randomness}.} */
+ value = yyparse (&nastiness, &randomness);
+ @dots{}
+@}
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+In the grammar actions, use expressions like this to refer to the data:
+
+@example
+exp: @dots{} @{ @dots{}; *randomness += 1; @dots{} @}
+@end example
-@item YYABORT
-@findex YYABORT
-Return immediately with value 1 (to report failure).
-@end table
-@node Lexical, Error Reporting, Parser Function, Interface
+@node Lexical
@section The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}
@findex yylex
@cindex lexical analyzer
To do this, use the @samp{-d} option when you run Bison, so that it will
write these macro definitions into a separate header file
@file{@var{name}.tab.h} which you can include in the other source files
-that need it. @xref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}.@refill
+that need it. @xref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}.
@menu
* Calling Convention:: How @code{yyparse} calls @code{yylex}.
in a pure parser (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}).
@end menu
-@node Calling Convention, Token Values, , Lexical
+@node Calling Convention
@subsection Calling Convention for @code{yylex}
-The value that @code{yylex} returns must be the numeric code for the type
-of token it has just found, or 0 for end-of-input.
+The value that @code{yylex} returns must be the positive numeric code
+for the type of token it has just found; a zero or negative value
+signifies end-of-input.
When a token is referred to in the grammar rules by a name, that name
in the parser file becomes a C macro whose definition is the proper
When a token is referred to in the grammar rules by a character literal,
the numeric code for that character is also the code for the token type.
-So @code{yylex} can simply return that character code. The null character
-must not be used this way, because its code is zero and that is what
+So @code{yylex} can simply return that character code, possibly converted
+to @code{unsigned char} to avoid sign-extension. The null character
+must not be used this way, because its code is zero and that
signifies end-of-input.
Here is an example showing these things:
yylex (void)
@{
@dots{}
- if (c == EOF) /* Detect end of file. */
+ if (c == EOF) /* Detect end-of-input. */
return 0;
@dots{}
if (c == '+' || c == '-')
- return c; /* Assume token type for `+' is '+'. */
+ return c; /* Assume token type for `+' is '+'. */
@dots{}
- return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */
+ return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */
@dots{}
@}
@end example
@{
if (yytname[i] != 0
&& yytname[i][0] == '"'
- && strncmp (yytname[i] + 1, token_buffer,
- strlen (token_buffer))
+ && ! strncmp (yytname[i] + 1, token_buffer,
+ strlen (token_buffer))
&& yytname[i][strlen (token_buffer) + 1] == '"'
&& yytname[i][strlen (token_buffer) + 2] == 0)
break;
@end smallexample
The @code{yytname} table is generated only if you use the
-@code{%token_table} declaration. @xref{Decl Summary}.
+@code{%token-table} declaration. @xref{Decl Summary}.
@end itemize
-@node Token Values, Token Positions, Calling Convention, Lexical
+@node Token Values
@subsection Semantic Values of Tokens
@vindex yylval
@example
@group
@dots{}
- yylval = value; /* Put value onto Bison stack. */
- return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */
+ yylval = value; /* Put value onto Bison stack. */
+ return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */
@dots{}
@end group
@end example
When you are using multiple data types, @code{yylval}'s type is a union
-made from the @code{%union} declaration (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}). So when
-you store a token's value, you must use the proper member of the union.
-If the @code{%union} declaration looks like this:
+made from the @code{%union} declaration (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The
+Collection of Value Types}). So when you store a token's value, you
+must use the proper member of the union. If the @code{%union}
+declaration looks like this:
@example
@group
@example
@group
@dots{}
- yylval.intval = value; /* Put value onto Bison stack. */
- return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */
+ yylval.intval = value; /* Put value onto Bison stack. */
+ return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */
@dots{}
@end group
@end example
-@node Token Positions, Pure Calling, Token Values, Lexical
+@node Token Positions
@subsection Textual Positions of Tokens
@vindex yylloc
@tindex YYLTYPE
The data type of @code{yylloc} has the name @code{YYLTYPE}.
-@node Pure Calling, , Token Positions, Lexical
+@node Pure Calling
@subsection Calling Conventions for Pure Parsers
-When you use the Bison declaration @code{%pure_parser} to request a
+When you use the Bison declaration @code{%pure-parser} to request a
pure, reentrant parser, the global communication variables @code{yylval}
and @code{yylloc} cannot be used. (@xref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant)
Parser}.) In such parsers the two global variables are replaced by
this case, omit the second argument; @code{yylex} will be called with
only one argument.
-@vindex YYPARSE_PARAM
-If you use a reentrant parser, you can optionally pass additional
-parameter information to it in a reentrant way. To do so, define the
-macro @code{YYPARSE_PARAM} as a variable name. This modifies the
-@code{yyparse} function to accept one argument, of type @code{void *},
-with that name.
-
-When you call @code{yyparse}, pass the address of an object, casting the
-address to @code{void *}. The grammar actions can refer to the contents
-of the object by casting the pointer value back to its proper type and
-then dereferencing it. Here's an example. Write this in the parser:
-@example
-%@{
-struct parser_control
-@{
- int nastiness;
- int randomness;
-@};
+If you wish to pass the additional parameter data to @code{yylex}, use
+@code{%lex-param} just like @code{%parse-param} (@pxref{Parser
+Function}).
-#define YYPARSE_PARAM parm
-%@}
-@end example
+@deffn {Directive} lex-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@}, @{@var{argument-name}@}
+@findex %lex-param
+Declare that @code{argument-name} is an additional @code{yylex}
+argument.
+@end deffn
-@noindent
-Then call the parser like this:
+For instance:
@example
-struct parser_control
-@{
- int nastiness;
- int randomness;
-@};
-
-@dots{}
-
-@{
- struct parser_control foo;
- @dots{} /* @r{Store proper data in @code{foo}.} */
- value = yyparse ((void *) &foo);
- @dots{}
-@}
+%parse-param @{int *nastiness@}, @{nastiness@}
+%lex-param @{int *nastiness@}, @{nastiness@}
+%parse-param @{int *randomness@}, @{randomness@}
@end example
@noindent
-In the grammar actions, use expressions like this to refer to the data:
+results in the following signature:
@example
-((struct parser_control *) parm)->randomness
+int yylex (int *nastiness);
+int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness);
@end example
-@vindex YYLEX_PARAM
-If you wish to pass the additional parameter data to @code{yylex},
-define the macro @code{YYLEX_PARAM} just like @code{YYPARSE_PARAM}, as
-shown here:
+If @code{%pure-parser} is added:
@example
-%@{
-struct parser_control
-@{
- int nastiness;
- int randomness;
-@};
-
-#define YYPARSE_PARAM parm
-#define YYLEX_PARAM parm
-%@}
+int yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, int *nastiness);
+int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness);
@end example
-You should then define @code{yylex} to accept one additional
-argument---the value of @code{parm}. (This makes either two or three
-arguments in total, depending on whether an argument of type
-@code{YYLTYPE} is passed.) You can declare the argument as a pointer to
-the proper object type, or you can declare it as @code{void *} and
-access the contents as shown above.
+@noindent
+and finally, if both @code{%pure-parser} and @code{%locations} are used:
-You can use @samp{%pure_parser} to request a reentrant parser without
-also using @code{YYPARSE_PARAM}. Then you should call @code{yyparse}
-with no arguments, as usual.
+@example
+int yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, YYLTYPE *llocp, int *nastiness);
+int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness);
+@end example
-@node Error Reporting, Action Features, Lexical, Interface
+@node Error Reporting
@section The Error Reporting Function @code{yyerror}
@cindex error reporting function
@findex yyerror
@cindex parse error
@cindex syntax error
-The Bison parser detects a @dfn{parse error} or @dfn{syntax error}
+The Bison parser detects a @dfn{syntax error} or @dfn{parse error}
whenever it reads a token which cannot satisfy any syntax rule. An
action in the grammar can also explicitly proclaim an error, using the
macro @code{YYERROR} (@pxref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use
The Bison parser expects to report the error by calling an error
reporting function named @code{yyerror}, which you must supply. It is
called by @code{yyparse} whenever a syntax error is found, and it
-receives one argument. For a parse error, the string is normally
-@w{@code{"parse error"}}.
+receives one argument. For a syntax error, the string is normally
+@w{@code{"syntax error"}}.
-@findex YYERROR_VERBOSE
-If you define the macro @code{YYERROR_VERBOSE} in the Bison declarations
-section (@pxref{Bison Declarations, ,The Bison Declarations Section}),
-then Bison provides a more verbose and specific error message string
-instead of just plain @w{@code{"parse error"}}. It doesn't matter what
-definition you use for @code{YYERROR_VERBOSE}, just whether you define
-it.
+@findex %error-verbose
+If you invoke the directive @code{%error-verbose} in the Bison
+declarations section (@pxref{Bison Declarations, ,The Bison Declarations
+Section}), then Bison provides a more verbose and specific error message
+string instead of just plain @w{@code{"syntax error"}}.
The parser can detect one other kind of error: stack overflow. This
happens when the input contains constructions that are very deeply
@example
@group
void
-yyerror (char *s)
+yyerror (const char *s)
@{
@end group
@group
(@pxref{Error Recovery}). If recovery is impossible, @code{yyparse} will
immediately return 1.
+Obviously, in location tracking pure parsers, @code{yyerror} should have
+an access to the current location. This is indeed the case for the GLR
+parsers, but not for the Yacc parser, for historical reasons. I.e., if
+@samp{%locations %pure-parser} is passed then the prototypes for
+@code{yyerror} are:
+
+@example
+void yyerror (const char *msg); /* Yacc parsers. */
+void yyerror (YYLTYPE *locp, const char *msg); /* GLR parsers. */
+@end example
+
+If @samp{%parse-param @{int *nastiness@}, @{nastiness@}} is used, then:
+
+@example
+void yyerror (int *randomness, const char *msg); /* Yacc parsers. */
+void yyerror (int *randomness, const char *msg); /* GLR parsers. */
+@end example
+
+Finally, GLR and Yacc parsers share the same @code{yyerror} calling
+convention for absolutely pure parsers, i.e., when the calling
+convention of @code{yylex} @emph{and} the calling convention of
+@code{%pure-parser} are pure. I.e.:
+
+@example
+/* Location tracking. */
+%locations
+/* Pure yylex. */
+%pure-parser
+%lex-param @{int *nastiness@}, @{nastiness@}
+/* Pure yyparse. */
+%parse-param @{int *nastiness@}, @{nastiness@}
+%parse-param @{int *randomness@}, @{randomness@}
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+results in the following signatures for all the parser kinds:
+
+@example
+int yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, YYLTYPE *llocp, int *nastiness);
+int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness);
+void yyerror (YYLTYPE *locp,
+ int *nastiness, int *randomness,
+ const char *msg);
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+Please, note that the prototypes are only indications of how the code
+produced by Bison will use @code{yyerror}; you still have freedom on the
+exit value, and even on making @code{yyerror} a variadic function. It
+is precisely to enable this that the message is always passed last.
+
@vindex yynerrs
The variable @code{yynerrs} contains the number of syntax errors
encountered so far. Normally this variable is global; but if you
-request a pure parser (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}) then it is a local variable
-which only the actions can access.
+request a pure parser (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser})
+then it is a local variable which only the actions can access.
-@node Action Features, , Error Reporting, Interface
+@node Action Features
@section Special Features for Use in Actions
@cindex summary, action features
@cindex action features summary
Here is a table of Bison constructs, variables and macros that
are useful in actions.
-@table @samp
-@item $$
+@deffn {Variable} $$
Acts like a variable that contains the semantic value for the
grouping made by the current rule. @xref{Actions}.
+@end deffn
-@item $@var{n}
+@deffn {Variable} $@var{n}
Acts like a variable that contains the semantic value for the
@var{n}th component of the current rule. @xref{Actions}.
+@end deffn
-@item $<@var{typealt}>$
+@deffn {Variable} $<@var{typealt}>$
Like @code{$$} but specifies alternative @var{typealt} in the union
-specified by the @code{%union} declaration. @xref{Action Types, ,Data Types of Values in Actions}.
+specified by the @code{%union} declaration. @xref{Action Types, ,Data
+Types of Values in Actions}.
+@end deffn
-@item $<@var{typealt}>@var{n}
+@deffn {Variable} $<@var{typealt}>@var{n}
Like @code{$@var{n}} but specifies alternative @var{typealt} in the
union specified by the @code{%union} declaration.
-@xref{Action Types, ,Data Types of Values in Actions}.@refill
+@xref{Action Types, ,Data Types of Values in Actions}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYABORT;
+@deffn {Macro} YYABORT;
Return immediately from @code{yyparse}, indicating failure.
@xref{Parser Function, ,The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYACCEPT;
+@deffn {Macro} YYACCEPT;
Return immediately from @code{yyparse}, indicating success.
@xref{Parser Function, ,The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYBACKUP (@var{token}, @var{value});
+@deffn {Macro} YYBACKUP (@var{token}, @var{value});
@findex YYBACKUP
Unshift a token. This macro is allowed only for rules that reduce
a single value, and only when there is no look-ahead token.
+It is also disallowed in @acronym{GLR} parsers.
It installs a look-ahead token with token type @var{token} and
semantic value @var{value}; then it discards the value that was
going to be reduced by this rule.
recovery.
In either case, the rest of the action is not executed.
+@end deffn
-@item YYEMPTY
+@deffn {Macro} YYEMPTY
@vindex YYEMPTY
Value stored in @code{yychar} when there is no look-ahead token.
+@end deffn
-@item YYERROR;
+@deffn {Macro} YYERROR;
@findex YYERROR
Cause an immediate syntax error. This statement initiates error
recovery just as if the parser itself had detected an error; however, it
does not call @code{yyerror}, and does not print any message. If you
want to print an error message, call @code{yyerror} explicitly before
the @samp{YYERROR;} statement. @xref{Error Recovery}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYRECOVERING
+@deffn {Macro} YYRECOVERING
This macro stands for an expression that has the value 1 when the parser
is recovering from a syntax error, and 0 the rest of the time.
@xref{Error Recovery}.
+@end deffn
-@item yychar
+@deffn {Variable} yychar
Variable containing the current look-ahead token. (In a pure parser,
this is actually a local variable within @code{yyparse}.) When there is
no look-ahead token, the value @code{YYEMPTY} is stored in the variable.
@xref{Look-Ahead, ,Look-Ahead Tokens}.
+@end deffn
-@item yyclearin;
+@deffn {Macro} yyclearin;
Discard the current look-ahead token. This is useful primarily in
error rules. @xref{Error Recovery}.
+@end deffn
-@item yyerrok;
+@deffn {Macro} yyerrok;
Resume generating error messages immediately for subsequent syntax
errors. This is useful primarily in error rules.
@xref{Error Recovery}.
+@end deffn
-@item @@$
+@deffn {Value} @@$
@findex @@$
Acts like a structure variable containing information on the textual position
of the grouping made by the current rule. @xref{Locations, ,
@c those members.
@c The use of this feature makes the parser noticeably slower.
+@end deffn
-@item @@@var{n}
+@deffn {Value} @@@var{n}
@findex @@@var{n}
Acts like a structure variable containing information on the textual position
of the @var{n}th component of the current rule. @xref{Locations, ,
Tracking Locations}.
+@end deffn
-@end table
-@node Algorithm, Error Recovery, Interface, Top
+@node Algorithm
@chapter The Bison Parser Algorithm
@cindex Bison parser algorithm
@cindex algorithm of parser
* Parser States:: The parser is a finite-state-machine with stack.
* Reduce/Reduce:: When two rules are applicable in the same situation.
* Mystery Conflicts:: Reduce/reduce conflicts that look unjustified.
+* Generalized LR Parsing:: Parsing arbitrary context-free grammars.
* Stack Overflow:: What happens when stack gets full. How to avoid it.
@end menu
-@node Look-Ahead, Shift/Reduce, , Algorithm
+@node Look-Ahead
@section Look-Ahead Tokens
@cindex look-ahead token
The current look-ahead token is stored in the variable @code{yychar}.
@xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}.
-@node Shift/Reduce, Precedence, Look-Ahead, Algorithm
+@node Shift/Reduce
@section Shift/Reduce Conflicts
@cindex conflicts
@cindex shift/reduce conflicts
;
@end example
-@node Precedence, Contextual Precedence, Shift/Reduce, Algorithm
+@node Precedence
@section Operator Precedence
@cindex operator precedence
@cindex precedence of operators
* How Precedence:: How they work.
@end menu
-@node Why Precedence, Using Precedence, , Precedence
+@node Why Precedence
@subsection When Precedence is Needed
Consider the following ambiguous grammar fragment (ambiguous because the
contains @w{@samp{1 - 2}} and the look-ahead token is @samp{-}: shifting
makes right-associativity.
-@node Using Precedence, Precedence Examples, Why Precedence, Precedence
+@node Using Precedence
@subsection Specifying Operator Precedence
@findex %left
@findex %right
precedence is lowest, the next such declaration declares the operators
whose precedence is a little higher, and so on.
-@node Precedence Examples, How Precedence, Using Precedence, Precedence
+@node Precedence Examples
@subsection Precedence Examples
In our example, we would want the following declarations:
and so on. We assume that these tokens are more than one character long
and therefore are represented by names, not character literals.)
-@node How Precedence, , Precedence Examples, Precedence
+@node How Precedence
@subsection How Precedence Works
The first effect of the precedence declarations is to assign precedence
levels to the terminal symbols declared. The second effect is to assign
-precedence levels to certain rules: each rule gets its precedence from the
-last terminal symbol mentioned in the components. (You can also specify
-explicitly the precedence of a rule. @xref{Contextual Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}.)
-
-Finally, the resolution of conflicts works by comparing the
-precedence of the rule being considered with that of the
-look-ahead token. If the token's precedence is higher, the
-choice is to shift. If the rule's precedence is higher, the
-choice is to reduce. If they have equal precedence, the choice
-is made based on the associativity of that precedence level. The
-verbose output file made by @samp{-v} (@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}) says
-how each conflict was resolved.
+precedence levels to certain rules: each rule gets its precedence from
+the last terminal symbol mentioned in the components. (You can also
+specify explicitly the precedence of a rule. @xref{Contextual
+Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}.)
+
+Finally, the resolution of conflicts works by comparing the precedence
+of the rule being considered with that of the look-ahead token. If the
+token's precedence is higher, the choice is to shift. If the rule's
+precedence is higher, the choice is to reduce. If they have equal
+precedence, the choice is made based on the associativity of that
+precedence level. The verbose output file made by @samp{-v}
+(@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}) says how each conflict was
+resolved.
Not all rules and not all tokens have precedence. If either the rule or
the look-ahead token has no precedence, then the default is to shift.
-@node Contextual Precedence, Parser States, Precedence, Algorithm
+@node Contextual Precedence
@section Context-Dependent Precedence
@cindex context-dependent precedence
@cindex unary operator precedence
@code{%nonassoc}, can only be used once for a given token; so a token has
only one precedence declared in this way. For context-dependent
precedence, you need to use an additional mechanism: the @code{%prec}
-modifier for rules.@refill
+modifier for rules.
The @code{%prec} modifier declares the precedence of a particular rule by
specifying a terminal symbol whose precedence should be used for that rule.
@end group
@end example
-@node Parser States, Reduce/Reduce, Contextual Precedence, Algorithm
+@node Parser States
@section Parser States
@cindex finite-state machine
@cindex parser state
is erroneous in the current state. This causes error processing to begin
(@pxref{Error Recovery}).
-@node Reduce/Reduce, Mystery Conflicts, Parser States, Algorithm
+@node Reduce/Reduce
@section Reduce/Reduce Conflicts
@cindex reduce/reduce conflict
@cindex conflicts, reduce/reduce
;
@end example
-@node Mystery Conflicts, Stack Overflow, Reduce/Reduce, Algorithm
+@node Mystery Conflicts
@section Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts
Sometimes reduce/reduce conflicts can occur that don't look warranted.
It would seem that this grammar can be parsed with only a single token
of look-ahead: when a @code{param_spec} is being read, an @code{ID} is
a @code{name} if a comma or colon follows, or a @code{type} if another
-@code{ID} follows. In other words, this grammar is LR(1).
+@code{ID} follows. In other words, this grammar is @acronym{LR}(1).
-@cindex LR(1)
-@cindex LALR(1)
+@cindex @acronym{LR}(1)
+@cindex @acronym{LALR}(1)
However, Bison, like most parser generators, cannot actually handle all
-LR(1) grammars. In this grammar, two contexts, that after an @code{ID}
+@acronym{LR}(1) grammars. In this grammar, two contexts, that after
+an @code{ID}
at the beginning of a @code{param_spec} and likewise at the beginning of
a @code{return_spec}, are similar enough that Bison assumes they are the
same. They appear similar because the same set of rules would be
that the rules would require different look-ahead tokens in the two
contexts, so it makes a single parser state for them both. Combining
the two contexts causes a conflict later. In parser terminology, this
-occurrence means that the grammar is not LALR(1).
+occurrence means that the grammar is not @acronym{LALR}(1).
In general, it is better to fix deficiencies than to document them. But
this particular deficiency is intrinsically hard to fix; parser
-generators that can handle LR(1) grammars are hard to write and tend to
+generators that can handle @acronym{LR}(1) grammars are hard to write
+and tend to
produce parsers that are very large. In practice, Bison is more useful
as it is now.
;
@end example
-@node Stack Overflow, , Mystery Conflicts, Algorithm
+@node Generalized LR Parsing
+@section Generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) Parsing
+@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsing
+@cindex generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) parsing
+@cindex ambiguous grammars
+@cindex non-deterministic parsing
+
+Bison produces @emph{deterministic} parsers that choose uniquely
+when to reduce and which reduction to apply
+based on a summary of the preceding input and on one extra token of lookahead.
+As a result, normal Bison handles a proper subset of the family of
+context-free languages.
+Ambiguous grammars, since they have strings with more than one possible
+sequence of reductions cannot have deterministic parsers in this sense.
+The same is true of languages that require more than one symbol of
+lookahead, since the parser lacks the information necessary to make a
+decision at the point it must be made in a shift-reduce parser.
+Finally, as previously mentioned (@pxref{Mystery Conflicts}),
+there are languages where Bison's particular choice of how to
+summarize the input seen so far loses necessary information.
+
+When you use the @samp{%glr-parser} declaration in your grammar file,
+Bison generates a parser that uses a different algorithm, called
+Generalized @acronym{LR} (or @acronym{GLR}). A Bison @acronym{GLR}
+parser uses the same basic
+algorithm for parsing as an ordinary Bison parser, but behaves
+differently in cases where there is a shift-reduce conflict that has not
+been resolved by precedence rules (@pxref{Precedence}) or a
+reduce-reduce conflict. When a @acronym{GLR} parser encounters such a
+situation, it
+effectively @emph{splits} into a several parsers, one for each possible
+shift or reduction. These parsers then proceed as usual, consuming
+tokens in lock-step. Some of the stacks may encounter other conflicts
+and split further, with the result that instead of a sequence of states,
+a Bison @acronym{GLR} parsing stack is what is in effect a tree of states.
+
+In effect, each stack represents a guess as to what the proper parse
+is. Additional input may indicate that a guess was wrong, in which case
+the appropriate stack silently disappears. Otherwise, the semantics
+actions generated in each stack are saved, rather than being executed
+immediately. When a stack disappears, its saved semantic actions never
+get executed. When a reduction causes two stacks to become equivalent,
+their sets of semantic actions are both saved with the state that
+results from the reduction. We say that two stacks are equivalent
+when they both represent the same sequence of states,
+and each pair of corresponding states represents a
+grammar symbol that produces the same segment of the input token
+stream.
+
+Whenever the parser makes a transition from having multiple
+states to having one, it reverts to the normal @acronym{LALR}(1) parsing
+algorithm, after resolving and executing the saved-up actions.
+At this transition, some of the states on the stack will have semantic
+values that are sets (actually multisets) of possible actions. The
+parser tries to pick one of the actions by first finding one whose rule
+has the highest dynamic precedence, as set by the @samp{%dprec}
+declaration. Otherwise, if the alternative actions are not ordered by
+precedence, but there the same merging function is declared for both
+rules by the @samp{%merge} declaration,
+Bison resolves and evaluates both and then calls the merge function on
+the result. Otherwise, it reports an ambiguity.
+
+It is possible to use a data structure for the @acronym{GLR} parsing tree that
+permits the processing of any @acronym{LALR}(1) grammar in linear time (in the
+size of the input), any unambiguous (not necessarily
+@acronym{LALR}(1)) grammar in
+quadratic worst-case time, and any general (possibly ambiguous)
+context-free grammar in cubic worst-case time. However, Bison currently
+uses a simpler data structure that requires time proportional to the
+length of the input times the maximum number of stacks required for any
+prefix of the input. Thus, really ambiguous or non-deterministic
+grammars can require exponential time and space to process. Such badly
+behaving examples, however, are not generally of practical interest.
+Usually, non-determinism in a grammar is local---the parser is ``in
+doubt'' only for a few tokens at a time. Therefore, the current data
+structure should generally be adequate. On @acronym{LALR}(1) portions of a
+grammar, in particular, it is only slightly slower than with the default
+Bison parser.
+
+@node Stack Overflow
@section Stack Overflow, and How to Avoid It
@cindex stack overflow
@cindex parser stack overflow
returns a nonzero value, pausing only to call @code{yyerror} to report
the overflow.
+Because Bison parsers have growing stacks, hitting the upper limit
+usually results from using a right recursion instead of a left
+recursion, @xref{Recursion, ,Recursive Rules}.
+
@vindex YYMAXDEPTH
By defining the macro @code{YYMAXDEPTH}, you can control how deep the
parser stack can become before a stack overflow occurs. Define the
macro @code{YYINITDEPTH}. This value too must be a compile-time
constant integer. The default is 200.
-@node Error Recovery, Context Dependency, Algorithm, Top
+@c FIXME: C++ output.
+Because of semantical differences between C and C++, the
+@acronym{LALR}(1) parsers
+in C produced by Bison by compiled as C++ cannot grow. In this precise
+case (compiling a C parser as C++) you are suggested to grow
+@code{YYINITDEPTH}. In the near future, a C++ output output will be
+provided which addresses this issue.
+
+@node Error Recovery
@chapter Error Recovery
@cindex error recovery
@cindex recovery from errors
-It is not usually acceptable to have a program terminate on a parse
+It is not usually acceptable to have a program terminate on a syntax
error. For example, a compiler should recover sufficiently to parse the
rest of the input file and check it for errors; a calculator should accept
another expression.
applicable in the ordinary way.
But Bison can force the situation to fit the rule, by discarding part of
-the semantic context and part of the input. First it discards states and
-objects from the stack until it gets back to a state in which the
+the semantic context and part of the input. First it discards states
+and objects from the stack until it gets back to a state in which the
@code{error} token is acceptable. (This means that the subexpressions
-already parsed are discarded, back to the last complete @code{stmnts}.) At
-this point the @code{error} token can be shifted. Then, if the old
+already parsed are discarded, back to the last complete @code{stmnts}.)
+At this point the @code{error} token can be shifted. Then, if the old
look-ahead token is not acceptable to be shifted next, the parser reads
tokens and discards them until it finds a token which is acceptable. In
-this example, Bison reads and discards input until the next newline
-so that the fourth rule can apply.
+this example, Bison reads and discards input until the next newline so
+that the fourth rule can apply. Note that discarded symbols are
+possible sources of memory leaks, see @ref{Destructor Decl, , Freeing
+Discarded Symbols}, for a means to reclaim this memory.
The choice of error rules in the grammar is a choice of strategies for
error recovery. A simple and useful strategy is simply to skip the rest of
the current input line or current statement if an error is detected:
@example
-stmnt: error ';' /* on error, skip until ';' is read */
+stmnt: error ';' /* On error, skip until ';' is read. */
@end example
It is also useful to recover to the matching close-delimiter of an
this token. Write the statement @samp{yyclearin;} in the error rule's
action.
-For example, suppose that on a parse error, an error handling routine is
+For example, suppose that on a syntax error, an error handling routine is
called that advances the input stream to some point where parsing should
once again commence. The next symbol returned by the lexical scanner is
probably correct. The previous look-ahead token ought to be discarded
rest of the time. A value of 1 indicates that error messages are
currently suppressed for new syntax errors.
-@node Context Dependency, Debugging, Error Recovery, Top
+@node Context Dependency
@chapter Handling Context Dependencies
The Bison paradigm is to parse tokens first, then group them into larger
(Actually, ``kludge'' means any technique that gets its job done but is
neither clean nor robust.)
-@node Semantic Tokens, Lexical Tie-ins, , Context Dependency
+@node Semantic Tokens
@section Semantic Info in Token Types
The C language has a context dependency: the way an identifier is used
name, then this is actually a declaration of @code{x}. How can a Bison
parser for C decide how to parse this input?
-The method used in GNU C is to have two different token types,
+The method used in @acronym{GNU} C is to have two different token types,
@code{IDENTIFIER} and @code{TYPENAME}. When @code{yylex} finds an
identifier, it looks up the current declaration of the identifier in order
to decide which token type to return: @code{TYPENAME} if the identifier is
program. A true lexical tie-in has a special-purpose flag controlled by
the syntactic context.
-@node Lexical Tie-ins, Tie-in Recovery, Semantic Tokens, Context Dependency
+@node Lexical Tie-ins
@section Lexical Tie-ins
@cindex lexical tie-in
it is nonzero, all integers are parsed in hexadecimal, and tokens starting
with letters are parsed as integers if possible.
-The declaration of @code{hexflag} shown in the C declarations section of
-the parser file is needed to make it accessible to the actions
-(@pxref{C Declarations, ,The C Declarations Section}). You must also write the code in @code{yylex}
-to obey the flag.
+The declaration of @code{hexflag} shown in the prologue of the parser file
+is needed to make it accessible to the actions (@pxref{Prologue, ,The Prologue}).
+You must also write the code in @code{yylex} to obey the flag.
-@node Tie-in Recovery, , Lexical Tie-ins, Context Dependency
+@node Tie-in Recovery
@section Lexical Tie-ins and Error Recovery
Lexical tie-ins make strict demands on any error recovery rules you have.
be such that you can be sure that it always will, or always won't, have to
clear the flag.
-@node Debugging, Invocation, Context Dependency, Top
+@c ================================================== Debugging Your Parser
+
+@node Debugging
@chapter Debugging Your Parser
-@findex YYDEBUG
+
+Developing a parser can be a challenge, especially if you don't
+understand the algorithm (@pxref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser
+Algorithm}). Even so, sometimes a detailed description of the automaton
+can help (@pxref{Understanding, , Understanding Your Parser}), or
+tracing the execution of the parser can give some insight on why it
+behaves improperly (@pxref{Tracing, , Tracing Your Parser}).
+
+@menu
+* Understanding:: Understanding the structure of your parser.
+* Tracing:: Tracing the execution of your parser.
+@end menu
+
+@node Understanding
+@section Understanding Your Parser
+
+As documented elsewhere (@pxref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm})
+Bison parsers are @dfn{shift/reduce automata}. In some cases (much more
+frequent than one would hope), looking at this automaton is required to
+tune or simply fix a parser. Bison provides two different
+representation of it, either textually or graphically (as a @acronym{VCG}
+file).
+
+The textual file is generated when the options @option{--report} or
+@option{--verbose} are specified, see @xref{Invocation, , Invoking
+Bison}. Its name is made by removing @samp{.tab.c} or @samp{.c} from
+the parser output file name, and adding @samp{.output} instead.
+Therefore, if the input file is @file{foo.y}, then the parser file is
+called @file{foo.tab.c} by default. As a consequence, the verbose
+output file is called @file{foo.output}.
+
+The following grammar file, @file{calc.y}, will be used in the sequel:
+
+@example
+%token NUM STR
+%left '+' '-'
+%left '*'
+%%
+exp: exp '+' exp
+ | exp '-' exp
+ | exp '*' exp
+ | exp '/' exp
+ | NUM
+ ;
+useless: STR;
+%%
+@end example
+
+@command{bison} reports:
+
+@example
+calc.y: warning: 1 useless nonterminal and 1 useless rule
+calc.y:11.1-7: warning: useless nonterminal: useless
+calc.y:11.8-12: warning: useless rule: useless: STR
+calc.y contains 7 shift/reduce conflicts.
+@end example
+
+When given @option{--report=state}, in addition to @file{calc.tab.c}, it
+creates a file @file{calc.output} with contents detailed below. The
+order of the output and the exact presentation might vary, but the
+interpretation is the same.
+
+The first section includes details on conflicts that were solved thanks
+to precedence and/or associativity:
+
+@example
+Conflict in state 8 between rule 2 and token '+' resolved as reduce.
+Conflict in state 8 between rule 2 and token '-' resolved as reduce.
+Conflict in state 8 between rule 2 and token '*' resolved as shift.
+@exdent @dots{}
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+The next section lists states that still have conflicts.
+
+@example
+State 8 contains 1 shift/reduce conflict.
+State 9 contains 1 shift/reduce conflict.
+State 10 contains 1 shift/reduce conflict.
+State 11 contains 4 shift/reduce conflicts.
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+@cindex token, useless
+@cindex useless token
+@cindex nonterminal, useless
+@cindex useless nonterminal
+@cindex rule, useless
+@cindex useless rule
+The next section reports useless tokens, nonterminal and rules. Useless
+nonterminals and rules are removed in order to produce a smaller parser,
+but useless tokens are preserved, since they might be used by the
+scanner (note the difference between ``useless'' and ``not used''
+below):
+
+@example
+Useless nonterminals:
+ useless
+
+Terminals which are not used:
+ STR
+
+Useless rules:
+#6 useless: STR;
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+The next section reproduces the exact grammar that Bison used:
+
+@example
+Grammar
+
+ Number, Line, Rule
+ 0 5 $accept -> exp $end
+ 1 5 exp -> exp '+' exp
+ 2 6 exp -> exp '-' exp
+ 3 7 exp -> exp '*' exp
+ 4 8 exp -> exp '/' exp
+ 5 9 exp -> NUM
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+and reports the uses of the symbols:
+
+@example
+Terminals, with rules where they appear
+
+$end (0) 0
+'*' (42) 3
+'+' (43) 1
+'-' (45) 2
+'/' (47) 4
+error (256)
+NUM (258) 5
+
+Nonterminals, with rules where they appear
+
+$accept (8)
+ on left: 0
+exp (9)
+ on left: 1 2 3 4 5, on right: 0 1 2 3 4
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+@cindex item
+@cindex pointed rule
+@cindex rule, pointed
+Bison then proceeds onto the automaton itself, describing each state
+with it set of @dfn{items}, also known as @dfn{pointed rules}. Each
+item is a production rule together with a point (marked by @samp{.})
+that the input cursor.
+
+@example
+state 0
+
+ $accept -> . exp $ (rule 0)
+
+ NUM shift, and go to state 1
+
+ exp go to state 2
+@end example
+
+This reads as follows: ``state 0 corresponds to being at the very
+beginning of the parsing, in the initial rule, right before the start
+symbol (here, @code{exp}). When the parser returns to this state right
+after having reduced a rule that produced an @code{exp}, the control
+flow jumps to state 2. If there is no such transition on a nonterminal
+symbol, and the lookahead is a @code{NUM}, then this token is shifted on
+the parse stack, and the control flow jumps to state 1. Any other
+lookahead triggers a syntax error.''
+
+@cindex core, item set
+@cindex item set core
+@cindex kernel, item set
+@cindex item set core
+Even though the only active rule in state 0 seems to be rule 0, the
+report lists @code{NUM} as a lookahead symbol because @code{NUM} can be
+at the beginning of any rule deriving an @code{exp}. By default Bison
+reports the so-called @dfn{core} or @dfn{kernel} of the item set, but if
+you want to see more detail you can invoke @command{bison} with
+@option{--report=itemset} to list all the items, include those that can
+be derived:
+
+@example
+state 0
+
+ $accept -> . exp $ (rule 0)
+ exp -> . exp '+' exp (rule 1)
+ exp -> . exp '-' exp (rule 2)
+ exp -> . exp '*' exp (rule 3)
+ exp -> . exp '/' exp (rule 4)
+ exp -> . NUM (rule 5)
+
+ NUM shift, and go to state 1
+
+ exp go to state 2
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+In the state 1...
+
+@example
+state 1
+
+ exp -> NUM . (rule 5)
+
+ $default reduce using rule 5 (exp)
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+the rule 5, @samp{exp: NUM;}, is completed. Whatever the lookahead
+(@samp{$default}), the parser will reduce it. If it was coming from
+state 0, then, after this reduction it will return to state 0, and will
+jump to state 2 (@samp{exp: go to state 2}).
+
+@example
+state 2
+
+ $accept -> exp . $ (rule 0)
+ exp -> exp . '+' exp (rule 1)
+ exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2)
+ exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3)
+ exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4)
+
+ $ shift, and go to state 3
+ '+' shift, and go to state 4
+ '-' shift, and go to state 5
+ '*' shift, and go to state 6
+ '/' shift, and go to state 7
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+In state 2, the automaton can only shift a symbol. For instance,
+because of the item @samp{exp -> exp . '+' exp}, if the lookahead if
+@samp{+}, it will be shifted on the parse stack, and the automaton
+control will jump to state 4, corresponding to the item @samp{exp -> exp
+'+' . exp}. Since there is no default action, any other token than
+those listed above will trigger a syntax error.
+
+The state 3 is named the @dfn{final state}, or the @dfn{accepting
+state}:
+
+@example
+state 3
+
+ $accept -> exp $ . (rule 0)
+
+ $default accept
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+the initial rule is completed (the start symbol and the end
+of input were read), the parsing exits successfully.
+
+The interpretation of states 4 to 7 is straightforward, and is left to
+the reader.
+
+@example
+state 4
+
+ exp -> exp '+' . exp (rule 1)
+
+ NUM shift, and go to state 1
+
+ exp go to state 8
+
+state 5
+
+ exp -> exp '-' . exp (rule 2)
+
+ NUM shift, and go to state 1
+
+ exp go to state 9
+
+state 6
+
+ exp -> exp '*' . exp (rule 3)
+
+ NUM shift, and go to state 1
+
+ exp go to state 10
+
+state 7
+
+ exp -> exp '/' . exp (rule 4)
+
+ NUM shift, and go to state 1
+
+ exp go to state 11
+@end example
+
+As was announced in beginning of the report, @samp{State 8 contains 1
+shift/reduce conflict}:
+
+@example
+state 8
+
+ exp -> exp . '+' exp (rule 1)
+ exp -> exp '+' exp . (rule 1)
+ exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2)
+ exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3)
+ exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4)
+
+ '*' shift, and go to state 6
+ '/' shift, and go to state 7
+
+ '/' [reduce using rule 1 (exp)]
+ $default reduce using rule 1 (exp)
+@end example
+
+Indeed, there are two actions associated to the lookahead @samp{/}:
+either shifting (and going to state 7), or reducing rule 1. The
+conflict means that either the grammar is ambiguous, or the parser lacks
+information to make the right decision. Indeed the grammar is
+ambiguous, as, since we did not specify the precedence of @samp{/}, the
+sentence @samp{NUM + NUM / NUM} can be parsed as @samp{NUM + (NUM /
+NUM)}, which corresponds to shifting @samp{/}, or as @samp{(NUM + NUM) /
+NUM}, which corresponds to reducing rule 1.
+
+Because in @acronym{LALR}(1) parsing a single decision can be made, Bison
+arbitrarily chose to disable the reduction, see @ref{Shift/Reduce, ,
+Shift/Reduce Conflicts}. Discarded actions are reported in between
+square brackets.
+
+Note that all the previous states had a single possible action: either
+shifting the next token and going to the corresponding state, or
+reducing a single rule. In the other cases, i.e., when shifting
+@emph{and} reducing is possible or when @emph{several} reductions are
+possible, the lookahead is required to select the action. State 8 is
+one such state: if the lookahead is @samp{*} or @samp{/} then the action
+is shifting, otherwise the action is reducing rule 1. In other words,
+the first two items, corresponding to rule 1, are not eligible when the
+lookahead is @samp{*}, since we specified that @samp{*} has higher
+precedence that @samp{+}. More generally, some items are eligible only
+with some set of possible lookaheads. When run with
+@option{--report=lookahead}, Bison specifies these lookaheads:
+
+@example
+state 8
+
+ exp -> exp . '+' exp [$, '+', '-', '/'] (rule 1)
+ exp -> exp '+' exp . [$, '+', '-', '/'] (rule 1)
+ exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2)
+ exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3)
+ exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4)
+
+ '*' shift, and go to state 6
+ '/' shift, and go to state 7
+
+ '/' [reduce using rule 1 (exp)]
+ $default reduce using rule 1 (exp)
+@end example
+
+The remaining states are similar:
+
+@example
+state 9
+
+ exp -> exp . '+' exp (rule 1)
+ exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2)
+ exp -> exp '-' exp . (rule 2)
+ exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3)
+ exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4)
+
+ '*' shift, and go to state 6
+ '/' shift, and go to state 7
+
+ '/' [reduce using rule 2 (exp)]
+ $default reduce using rule 2 (exp)
+
+state 10
+
+ exp -> exp . '+' exp (rule 1)
+ exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2)
+ exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3)
+ exp -> exp '*' exp . (rule 3)
+ exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4)
+
+ '/' shift, and go to state 7
+
+ '/' [reduce using rule 3 (exp)]
+ $default reduce using rule 3 (exp)
+
+state 11
+
+ exp -> exp . '+' exp (rule 1)
+ exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2)
+ exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3)
+ exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4)
+ exp -> exp '/' exp . (rule 4)
+
+ '+' shift, and go to state 4
+ '-' shift, and go to state 5
+ '*' shift, and go to state 6
+ '/' shift, and go to state 7
+
+ '+' [reduce using rule 4 (exp)]
+ '-' [reduce using rule 4 (exp)]
+ '*' [reduce using rule 4 (exp)]
+ '/' [reduce using rule 4 (exp)]
+ $default reduce using rule 4 (exp)
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+Observe that state 11 contains conflicts due to the lack of precedence
+of @samp{/} wrt @samp{+}, @samp{-}, and @samp{*}, but also because the
+associativity of @samp{/} is not specified.
+
+
+@node Tracing
+@section Tracing Your Parser
@findex yydebug
@cindex debugging
@cindex tracing the parser
If a Bison grammar compiles properly but doesn't do what you want when it
runs, the @code{yydebug} parser-trace feature can help you figure out why.
-To enable compilation of trace facilities, you must define the macro
-@code{YYDEBUG} when you compile the parser. You could use
+There are several means to enable compilation of trace facilities:
+
+@table @asis
+@item the macro @code{YYDEBUG}
+@findex YYDEBUG
+Define the macro @code{YYDEBUG} to a nonzero value when you compile the
+parser. This is compliant with @acronym{POSIX} Yacc. You could use
@samp{-DYYDEBUG=1} as a compiler option or you could put @samp{#define
-YYDEBUG 1} in the C declarations section of the grammar file
-(@pxref{C Declarations, ,The C Declarations Section}). Alternatively, use the @samp{-t} option when
-you run Bison (@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}). We always define @code{YYDEBUG} so that
-debugging is always possible.
+YYDEBUG 1} in the prologue of the grammar file (@pxref{Prologue, , The
+Prologue}).
+
+@item the option @option{-t}, @option{--debug}
+Use the @samp{-t} option when you run Bison (@pxref{Invocation,
+,Invoking Bison}). This is @acronym{POSIX} compliant too.
+
+@item the directive @samp{%debug}
+@findex %debug
+Add the @code{%debug} directive (@pxref{Decl Summary, ,Bison
+Declaration Summary}). This is a Bison extension, which will prove
+useful when Bison will output parsers for languages that don't use a
+preprocessor. Unless @acronym{POSIX} and Yacc portability matter to
+you, this is
+the preferred solution.
+@end table
+
+We suggest that you always enable the debug option so that debugging is
+always possible.
-The trace facility uses @code{stderr}, so you must add @w{@code{#include
-<stdio.h>}} to the C declarations section unless it is already there.
+The trace facility outputs messages with macro calls of the form
+@code{YYFPRINTF (stderr, @var{format}, @var{args})} where
+@var{format} and @var{args} are the usual @code{printf} format and
+arguments. If you define @code{YYDEBUG} to a nonzero value but do not
+define @code{YYFPRINTF}, @code{<stdio.h>} is automatically included
+and @code{YYPRINTF} is defined to @code{fprintf}.
Once you have compiled the program with trace facilities, the way to
request a trace is to store a nonzero value in the variable @code{yydebug}.
@end itemize
To make sense of this information, it helps to refer to the listing file
-produced by the Bison @samp{-v} option (@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}). This file
-shows the meaning of each state in terms of positions in various rules, and
-also what each state will do with each possible input token. As you read
-the successive trace messages, you can see that the parser is functioning
-according to its specification in the listing file. Eventually you will
-arrive at the place where something undesirable happens, and you will see
-which parts of the grammar are to blame.
+produced by the Bison @samp{-v} option (@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking
+Bison}). This file shows the meaning of each state in terms of
+positions in various rules, and also what each state will do with each
+possible input token. As you read the successive trace messages, you
+can see that the parser is functioning according to its specification in
+the listing file. Eventually you will arrive at the place where
+something undesirable happens, and you will see which parts of the
+grammar are to blame.
The parser file is a C program and you can use C debuggers on it, but it's
not easy to interpret what it is doing. The parser function is a
yyprint (FILE *file, int type, YYSTYPE value)
@{
if (type == VAR)
- fprintf (file, " %s", value.tptr->name);
+ fprintf (file, "%s", value.tptr->name);
else if (type == NUM)
- fprintf (file, " %d", value.val);
+ fprintf (file, "%d", value.val);
@}
@end smallexample
-@node Invocation, Table of Symbols, Debugging, Top
+@c ================================================= Invoking Bison
+
+@node Invocation
@chapter Invoking Bison
@cindex invoking Bison
@cindex Bison invocation
@samp{.y}. The parser file's name is made by replacing the @samp{.y}
with @samp{.tab.c}. Thus, the @samp{bison foo.y} filename yields
@file{foo.tab.c}, and the @samp{bison hack/foo.y} filename yields
-@file{hack/foo.tab.c}. It's is also possible, in case you are writting
+@file{hack/foo.tab.c}. It's also possible, in case you are writing
C++ code instead of C in your grammar file, to name it @file{foo.ypp}
-or @file{foo.y++}. Then, the output files will take an extention like
-the given one as input (repectively @file{foo.tab.cpp} and @file{foo.tab.c++}).
+or @file{foo.y++}. Then, the output files will take an extension like
+the given one as input (respectively @file{foo.tab.cpp} and
+@file{foo.tab.c++}).
This feature takes effect with all options that manipulate filenames like
@samp{-o} or @samp{-d}.
bison -d @var{infile.yxx}
@end example
@noindent
-will produce @file{infile.tab.cxx} and @file{infile.tab.hxx}. and
+will produce @file{infile.tab.cxx} and @file{infile.tab.hxx}, and
@example
-bison -d @var{infile.y} -o @var{output.c++}
+bison -d -o @var{output.c++} @var{infile.y}
@end example
@noindent
will produce @file{output.c++} and @file{outfile.h++}.
-
@menu
* Bison Options:: All the options described in detail,
- in alphabetical order by short options.
-* Environment Variables:: Variables which affect Bison execution.
+ in alphabetical order by short options.
* Option Cross Key:: Alphabetical list of long options.
-* VMS Invocation:: Bison command syntax on VMS.
@end menu
-@node Bison Options, Environment Variables, , Invocation
+@node Bison Options
@section Bison Options
Bison supports both traditional single-letter options and mnemonic long
@need 1750
@item -y
@itemx --yacc
-@itemx --fixed-output-files
Equivalent to @samp{-o y.tab.c}; the parser output file is called
@file{y.tab.c}, and the other outputs are called @file{y.output} and
@file{y.tab.h}. The purpose of this option is to imitate Yacc's output
file name conventions. Thus, the following shell script can substitute
-for Yacc:@refill
+for Yacc:
@example
bison -y $*
@item -t
@itemx --debug
-Output a definition of the macro @code{YYDEBUG} into the parser file, so
-that the debugging facilities are compiled. @xref{Debugging, ,Debugging
-Your Parser}.
+In the parser file, define the macro @code{YYDEBUG} to 1 if it is not
+already defined, so that the debugging facilities are compiled.
+@xref{Tracing, ,Tracing Your Parser}.
@item --locations
-Pretend that @code{%locactions} was specified. @xref{Decl Summary}.
+Pretend that @code{%locations} was specified. @xref{Decl Summary}.
@item -p @var{prefix}
@itemx --name-prefix=@var{prefix}
-Rename the external symbols used in the parser so that they start with
-@var{prefix} instead of @samp{yy}. The precise list of symbols renamed
-is @code{yyparse}, @code{yylex}, @code{yyerror}, @code{yynerrs},
-@code{yylval}, @code{yychar} and @code{yydebug}.
-
-For example, if you use @samp{-p c}, the names become @code{cparse},
-@code{clex}, and so on.
-
-@xref{Multiple Parsers, ,Multiple Parsers in the Same Program}.
+Pretend that @code{%name-prefix="@var{prefix}"} was specified.
+@xref{Decl Summary}.
@item -l
@itemx --no-lines
@item -n
@itemx --no-parser
-Pretend that @code{%no_parser} was specified. @xref{Decl Summary}.
+Pretend that @code{%no-parser} was specified. @xref{Decl Summary}.
@item -k
@itemx --token-table
-Pretend that @code{%token_table} was specified. @xref{Decl Summary}.
+Pretend that @code{%token-table} was specified. @xref{Decl Summary}.
@end table
@noindent
@table @option
@item -d
@itemx --defines
-Pretend that @code{%verbose} was specified, i.e., write an extra output
+Pretend that @code{%defines} was specified, i.e., write an extra output
file containing macro definitions for the token type names defined in
the grammar and the semantic value type @code{YYSTYPE}, as well as a few
@code{extern} variable declarations. @xref{Decl Summary}.
+@item --defines=@var{defines-file}
+Same as above, but save in the file @var{defines-file}.
+
@item -b @var{file-prefix}
@itemx --file-prefix=@var{prefix}
-Specify a prefix to use for all Bison output file names. The names are
-chosen as if the input file were named @file{@var{prefix}.c}.
+Pretend that @code{%verbose} was specified, i.e, specify prefix to use
+for all Bison output file names. @xref{Decl Summary}.
+
+@item -r @var{things}
+@itemx --report=@var{things}
+Write an extra output file containing verbose description of the comma
+separated list of @var{things} among:
+
+@table @code
+@item state
+Description of the grammar, conflicts (resolved and unresolved), and
+@acronym{LALR} automaton.
+
+@item lookahead
+Implies @code{state} and augments the description of the automaton with
+each rule's lookahead set.
+
+@item itemset
+Implies @code{state} and augments the description of the automaton with
+the full set of items for each state, instead of its core only.
+@end table
+
+For instance, on the following grammar
@item -v
@itemx --verbose
Pretend that @code{%verbose} was specified, i.e, write an extra output
file containing verbose descriptions of the grammar and
-parser. @xref{Decl Summary}, for more.
+parser. @xref{Decl Summary}.
-@item -o @var{outfile}
-@itemx --output-file=@var{outfile}
-Specify the name @var{outfile} for the parser file.
+@item -o @var{filename}
+@itemx --output=@var{filename}
+Specify the @var{filename} for the parser file.
-The other output files' names are constructed from @var{outfile}
-as described under the @samp{-v} and @samp{-d} options.
-@end table
+The other output files' names are constructed from @var{filename} as
+described under the @samp{-v} and @samp{-d} options.
-@node Environment Variables, Option Cross Key, Bison Options, Invocation
-@section Environment Variables
-@cindex environment variables
-@cindex BISON_HAIRY
-@cindex BISON_SIMPLE
-
-Here is a list of environment variables which affect the way Bison
-runs.
-
-@table @samp
-@item BISON_SIMPLE
-@itemx BISON_HAIRY
-Much of the parser generated by Bison is copied verbatim from a file
-called @file{bison.simple}. If Bison cannot find that file, or if you
-would like to direct Bison to use a different copy, setting the
-environment variable @code{BISON_SIMPLE} to the path of the file will
-cause Bison to use that copy instead.
-
-When the @samp{%semantic_parser} declaration is used, Bison copies from
-a file called @file{bison.hairy} instead. The location of this file can
-also be specified or overridden in a similar fashion, with the
-@code{BISON_HAIRY} environment variable.
+@item -g
+Output a @acronym{VCG} definition of the @acronym{LALR}(1) grammar
+automaton computed by Bison. If the grammar file is @file{foo.y}, the
+@acronym{VCG} output file will
+be @file{foo.vcg}.
+@item --graph=@var{graph-file}
+The behavior of @var{--graph} is the same than @samp{-g}. The only
+difference is that it has an optional argument which is the name of
+the output graph filename.
@end table
-@node Option Cross Key, VMS Invocation, Environment Variables, Invocation
+@node Option Cross Key
@section Option Cross Key
Here is a list of options, alphabetized by long option, to help you find
\line{ --debug \leaderfill -t}
\line{ --defines \leaderfill -d}
\line{ --file-prefix \leaderfill -b}
-\line{ --fixed-output-files \leaderfill -y}
+\line{ --graph \leaderfill -g}
\line{ --help \leaderfill -h}
\line{ --name-prefix \leaderfill -p}
\line{ --no-lines \leaderfill -l}
\line{ --no-parser \leaderfill -n}
-\line{ --output-file \leaderfill -o}
+\line{ --output \leaderfill -o}
\line{ --token-table \leaderfill -k}
\line{ --verbose \leaderfill -v}
\line{ --version \leaderfill -V}
@ifinfo
@example
--debug -t
---defines -d
+--defines=@var{defines-file} -d
--file-prefix=@var{prefix} -b @var{file-prefix}
---fixed-output-files --yacc -y
+--graph=@var{graph-file} -d
--help -h
--name-prefix=@var{prefix} -p @var{name-prefix}
--no-lines -l
--no-parser -n
---output-file=@var{outfile} -o @var{outfile}
+--output=@var{outfile} -o @var{outfile}
--token-table -k
--verbose -v
--version -V
+--yacc -y
@end example
@end ifinfo
-@node VMS Invocation, , Option Cross Key, Invocation
-@section Invoking Bison under VMS
-@cindex invoking Bison under VMS
-@cindex VMS
+@c ================================================= Invoking Bison
-The command line syntax for Bison on VMS is a variant of the usual
-Bison command syntax---adapted to fit VMS conventions.
+@node FAQ
+@chapter Frequently Asked Questions
+@cindex frequently asked questions
+@cindex questions
-To find the VMS equivalent for any Bison option, start with the long
-option, and substitute a @samp{/} for the leading @samp{--}, and
-substitute a @samp{_} for each @samp{-} in the name of the long option.
-For example, the following invocation under VMS:
+Several questions about Bison come up occasionally. Here some of them
+are addressed.
-@example
-bison /debug/name_prefix=bar foo.y
-@end example
+@menu
+* Parser Stack Overflow:: Breaking the Stack Limits
+@end menu
-@noindent
-is equivalent to the following command under POSIX.
+@node Parser Stack Overflow
+@section Parser Stack Overflow
-@example
-bison --debug --name-prefix=bar foo.y
-@end example
+@display
+My parser returns with error with a @samp{parser stack overflow}
+message. What can I do?
+@end display
+
+This question is already addressed elsewhere, @xref{Recursion,
+,Recursive Rules}.
-The VMS file system does not permit filenames such as
-@file{foo.tab.c}. In the above example, the output file
-would instead be named @file{foo_tab.c}.
+@c ================================================= Table of Symbols
-@node Table of Symbols, Glossary, Invocation, Top
+@node Table of Symbols
@appendix Bison Symbols
@cindex Bison symbols, table of
@cindex symbols in Bison, table of
-@table @code
-@item error
+@deffn {Variable} @@$
+In an action, the location of the left-hand side of the rule.
+@xref{Locations, , Locations Overview}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Variable} @@@var{n}
+In an action, the location of the @var{n}-th symbol of the right-hand
+side of the rule. @xref{Locations, , Locations Overview}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Variable} $$
+In an action, the semantic value of the left-hand side of the rule.
+@xref{Actions}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Variable} $@var{n}
+In an action, the semantic value of the @var{n}-th symbol of the
+right-hand side of the rule. @xref{Actions}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Symbol} $accept
+The predefined nonterminal whose only rule is @samp{$accept: @var{start}
+$end}, where @var{start} is the start symbol. @xref{Start Decl, , The
+Start-Symbol}. It cannot be used in the grammar.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Symbol} $end
+The predefined token marking the end of the token stream. It cannot be
+used in the grammar.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Symbol} $undefined
+The predefined token onto which all undefined values returned by
+@code{yylex} are mapped. It cannot be used in the grammar, rather, use
+@code{error}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Symbol} error
A token name reserved for error recovery. This token may be used in
grammar rules so as to allow the Bison parser to recognize an error in
the grammar without halting the process. In effect, a sentence
-containing an error may be recognized as valid. On a parse error, the
+containing an error may be recognized as valid. On a syntax error, the
token @code{error} becomes the current look-ahead token. Actions
corresponding to @code{error} are then executed, and the look-ahead
token is reset to the token that originally caused the violation.
@xref{Error Recovery}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYABORT
+@deffn {Macro} YYABORT
Macro to pretend that an unrecoverable syntax error has occurred, by
making @code{yyparse} return 1 immediately. The error reporting
function @code{yyerror} is not called. @xref{Parser Function, ,The
Parser Function @code{yyparse}}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYACCEPT
+@deffn {Macro} YYACCEPT
Macro to pretend that a complete utterance of the language has been
read, by making @code{yyparse} return 0 immediately.
@xref{Parser Function, ,The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYBACKUP
+@deffn {Macro} YYBACKUP
Macro to discard a value from the parser stack and fake a look-ahead
token. @xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYERROR
+@deffn {Macro} YYDEBUG
+Macro to define to equip the parser with tracing code. @xref{Tracing,
+,Tracing Your Parser}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Macro} YYERROR
Macro to pretend that a syntax error has just been detected: call
@code{yyerror} and then perform normal error recovery if possible
(@pxref{Error Recovery}), or (if recovery is impossible) make
@code{yyparse} return 1. @xref{Error Recovery}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYERROR_VERBOSE
-Macro that you define with @code{#define} in the Bison declarations
-section to request verbose, specific error message strings when
-@code{yyerror} is called.
+@deffn {Macro} YYERROR_VERBOSE
+An obsolete macro that you define with @code{#define} in the Bison
+declarations section to request verbose, specific error message strings
+when @code{yyerror} is called. It doesn't matter what definition you
+use for @code{YYERROR_VERBOSE}, just whether you define it. Using
+@code{%error-verbose} is preferred.
+@end deffn
-@item YYINITDEPTH
+@deffn {Macro} YYINITDEPTH
Macro for specifying the initial size of the parser stack.
@xref{Stack Overflow}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYLEX_PARAM
-Macro for specifying an extra argument (or list of extra arguments) for
-@code{yyparse} to pass to @code{yylex}. @xref{Pure Calling,, Calling
-Conventions for Pure Parsers}.
+@deffn {Macro} YYLEX_PARAM
+An obsolete macro for specifying an extra argument (or list of extra
+arguments) for @code{yyparse} to pass to @code{yylex}. he use of this
+macro is deprecated, and is supported only for Yacc like parsers.
+@xref{Pure Calling,, Calling Conventions for Pure Parsers}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYLTYPE
+@deffn {Macro} YYLTYPE
Macro for the data type of @code{yylloc}; a structure with four
members. @xref{Location Type, , Data Types of Locations}.
+@end deffn
-@item yyltype
+@deffn {Type} yyltype
Default value for YYLTYPE.
+@end deffn
-@item YYMAXDEPTH
-Macro for specifying the maximum size of the parser stack.
-@xref{Stack Overflow}.
+@deffn {Macro} YYMAXDEPTH
+Macro for specifying the maximum size of the parser stack. @xref{Stack
+Overflow}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYPARSE_PARAM
-Macro for specifying the name of a parameter that @code{yyparse} should
-accept. @xref{Pure Calling,, Calling Conventions for Pure Parsers}.
+@deffn {Macro} YYPARSE_PARAM
+An obsolete macro for specifying the name of a parameter that
+@code{yyparse} should accept. The use of this macro is deprecated, and
+is supported only for Yacc like parsers. @xref{Pure Calling,, Calling
+Conventions for Pure Parsers}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYRECOVERING
+@deffn {Macro} YYRECOVERING
Macro whose value indicates whether the parser is recovering from a
syntax error. @xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}.
+@end deffn
-@item YYSTYPE
+@deffn {Macro} YYSTACK_USE_ALLOCA
+Macro used to control the use of @code{alloca}. If defined to @samp{0},
+the parser will not use @code{alloca} but @code{malloc} when trying to
+grow its internal stacks. Do @emph{not} define @code{YYSTACK_USE_ALLOCA}
+to anything else.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Macro} YYSTYPE
Macro for the data type of semantic values; @code{int} by default.
@xref{Value Type, ,Data Types of Semantic Values}.
+@end deffn
-@item yychar
+@deffn {Variable} yychar
External integer variable that contains the integer value of the current
look-ahead token. (In a pure parser, it is a local variable within
@code{yyparse}.) Error-recovery rule actions may examine this variable.
@xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}.
+@end deffn
-@item yyclearin
+@deffn {Variable} yyclearin
Macro used in error-recovery rule actions. It clears the previous
look-ahead token. @xref{Error Recovery}.
+@end deffn
-@item yydebug
+@deffn {Variable} yydebug
External integer variable set to zero by default. If @code{yydebug}
is given a nonzero value, the parser will output information on input
-symbols and parser action. @xref{Debugging, ,Debugging Your Parser}.
+symbols and parser action. @xref{Tracing, ,Tracing Your Parser}.
+@end deffn
-@item yyerrok
+@deffn {Macro} yyerrok
Macro to cause parser to recover immediately to its normal mode
-after a parse error. @xref{Error Recovery}.
+after a syntax error. @xref{Error Recovery}.
+@end deffn
-@item yyerror
+@deffn {Function} yyerror
User-supplied function to be called by @code{yyparse} on error. The
function receives one argument, a pointer to a character string
containing an error message. @xref{Error Reporting, ,The Error
Reporting Function @code{yyerror}}.
+@end deffn
-@item yylex
-User-supplied lexical analyzer function, called with no arguments
-to get the next token. @xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}.
+@deffn {Function} yylex
+User-supplied lexical analyzer function, called with no arguments to get
+the next token. @xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function
+@code{yylex}}.
+@end deffn
-@item yylval
+@deffn {Variable} yylval
External variable in which @code{yylex} should place the semantic
value associated with a token. (In a pure parser, it is a local
variable within @code{yyparse}, and its address is passed to
@code{yylex}.) @xref{Token Values, ,Semantic Values of Tokens}.
+@end deffn
-@item yylloc
+@deffn {Variable} yylloc
External variable in which @code{yylex} should place the line and column
numbers associated with a token. (In a pure parser, it is a local
variable within @code{yyparse}, and its address is passed to
@code{yylex}.) You can ignore this variable if you don't use the
@samp{@@} feature in the grammar actions. @xref{Token Positions,
,Textual Positions of Tokens}.
+@end deffn
-@item yynerrs
-Global variable which Bison increments each time there is a parse error.
+@deffn {Variable} yynerrs
+Global variable which Bison increments each time there is a syntax error.
(In a pure parser, it is a local variable within @code{yyparse}.)
@xref{Error Reporting, ,The Error Reporting Function @code{yyerror}}.
+@end deffn
-@item yyparse
+@deffn {Function} yyparse
The parser function produced by Bison; call this function to start
parsing. @xref{Parser Function, ,The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}.
+@end deffn
-@item %debug
+@deffn {Directive} %debug
Equip the parser for debugging. @xref{Decl Summary}.
+@end deffn
-@item %defines
+@deffn {Directive} %defines
Bison declaration to create a header file meant for the scanner.
@xref{Decl Summary}.
-
-@item %left
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %destructor
+Specifying how the parser should reclaim the memory associated to
+discarded symbols. @xref{Destructor Decl, , Freeing Discarded Symbols}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %dprec
+Bison declaration to assign a precedence to a rule that is used at parse
+time to resolve reduce/reduce conflicts. @xref{GLR Parsers, ,Writing
+@acronym{GLR} Parsers}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %error-verbose
+Bison declaration to request verbose, specific error message strings
+when @code{yyerror} is called.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %file-prefix="@var{prefix}"
+Bison declaration to set the prefix of the output files. @xref{Decl
+Summary}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %glr-parser
+Bison declaration to produce a @acronym{GLR} parser. @xref{GLR
+Parsers, ,Writing @acronym{GLR} Parsers}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %left
Bison declaration to assign left associativity to token(s).
@xref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}.
-
-@item %no_lines
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %lex-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@}. @{@var{argument-name}"@}
+Bison declaration to specifying an additional parameter that
+@code{yylex} should accept. @xref{Pure Calling,, Calling Conventions
+for Pure Parsers}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %merge
+Bison declaration to assign a merging function to a rule. If there is a
+reduce/reduce conflict with a rule having the same merging function, the
+function is applied to the two semantic values to get a single result.
+@xref{GLR Parsers, ,Writing @acronym{GLR} Parsers}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %name-prefix="@var{prefix}"
+Bison declaration to rename the external symbols. @xref{Decl Summary}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %no-lines
Bison declaration to avoid generating @code{#line} directives in the
parser file. @xref{Decl Summary}.
+@end deffn
-@item %nonassoc
+@deffn {Directive} %nonassoc
Bison declaration to assign non-associativity to token(s).
@xref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %output="@var{filename}"
+Bison declaration to set the name of the parser file. @xref{Decl
+Summary}.
+@end deffn
-@item %prec
+@deffn {Directive} %parse-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@}, @{@var{argument-name}@}
+Bison declaration to specifying an additional parameter that
+@code{yyparse} should accept. @xref{Parser Function,, The Parser
+Function @code{yyparse}}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %prec
Bison declaration to assign a precedence to a specific rule.
@xref{Contextual Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}.
+@end deffn
-@item %pure_parser
+@deffn {Directive} %pure-parser
Bison declaration to request a pure (reentrant) parser.
@xref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}.
+@end deffn
-@item %right
+@deffn {Directive} %right
Bison declaration to assign right associativity to token(s).
@xref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}.
+@end deffn
-@item %start
-Bison declaration to specify the start symbol. @xref{Start Decl, ,The Start-Symbol}.
+@deffn {Directive} %start
+Bison declaration to specify the start symbol. @xref{Start Decl, ,The
+Start-Symbol}.
+@end deffn
-@item %token
+@deffn {Directive} %token
Bison declaration to declare token(s) without specifying precedence.
@xref{Token Decl, ,Token Type Names}.
+@end deffn
-@item %token_table
+@deffn {Directive} %token-table
Bison declaration to include a token name table in the parser file.
@xref{Decl Summary}.
+@end deffn
-@item %type
-Bison declaration to declare nonterminals. @xref{Type Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}.
+@deffn {Directive} %type
+Bison declaration to declare nonterminals. @xref{Type Decl,
+,Nonterminal Symbols}.
+@end deffn
-@item %union
+@deffn {Directive} %union
Bison declaration to specify several possible data types for semantic
values. @xref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}.
-@end table
+@end deffn
+
+@sp 1
These are the punctuation and delimiters used in Bison input:
-@table @samp
-@item %%
+@deffn {Delimiter} %%
Delimiter used to separate the grammar rule section from the
-Bison declarations section or the additional C code section.
+Bison declarations section or the epilogue.
@xref{Grammar Layout, ,The Overall Layout of a Bison Grammar}.
+@end deffn
-@item %@{ %@}
+@c Don't insert spaces, or check the DVI output.
+@deffn {Delimiter} %@{@var{code}%@}
All code listed between @samp{%@{} and @samp{%@}} is copied directly to
-the output file uninterpreted. Such code forms the ``C declarations''
-section of the input file. @xref{Grammar Outline, ,Outline of a Bison
+the output file uninterpreted. Such code forms the prologue of the input
+file. @xref{Grammar Outline, ,Outline of a Bison
Grammar}.
+@end deffn
-@item /*@dots{}*/
+@deffn {Construct} /*@dots{}*/
Comment delimiters, as in C.
+@end deffn
-@item :
+@deffn {Delimiter} :
Separates a rule's result from its components. @xref{Rules, ,Syntax of
Grammar Rules}.
+@end deffn
-@item ;
+@deffn {Delimiter} ;
Terminates a rule. @xref{Rules, ,Syntax of Grammar Rules}.
+@end deffn
-@item |
+@deffn {Delimiter} |
Separates alternate rules for the same result nonterminal.
@xref{Rules, ,Syntax of Grammar Rules}.
-@end table
+@end deffn
-@node Glossary, Copying This Manual, Table of Symbols, Top
+@node Glossary
@appendix Glossary
@cindex glossary
@table @asis
-@item Backus-Naur Form (BNF)
-Formal method of specifying context-free grammars. BNF was first used
-in the @cite{ALGOL-60} report, 1963. @xref{Language and Grammar,
-,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}.
+@item Backus-Naur Form (@acronym{BNF}; also called ``Backus Normal Form'')
+Formal method of specifying context-free grammars originally proposed
+by John Backus, and slightly improved by Peter Naur in his 1960-01-02
+committee document contributing to what became the Algol 60 report.
+@xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}.
@item Context-free grammars
Grammars specified as rules that can be applied regardless of context.
machine moves from state to state as specified by the logic of the
machine. In the case of the parser, the input is the language being
parsed, and the states correspond to various stages in the grammar
-rules. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm }.
+rules. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm}.
+
+@item Generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR})
+A parsing algorithm that can handle all context-free grammars, including those
+that are not @acronym{LALR}(1). It resolves situations that Bison's
+usual @acronym{LALR}(1)
+algorithm cannot by effectively splitting off multiple parsers, trying all
+possible parsers, and discarding those that fail in the light of additional
+right context. @xref{Generalized LR Parsing, ,Generalized
+@acronym{LR} Parsing}.
@item Grouping
A language construct that is (in general) grammatically divisible;
-for example, `expression' or `declaration' in C.
+for example, `expression' or `declaration' in C@.
@xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}.
@item Infix operator
@item Left-to-right parsing
Parsing a sentence of a language by analyzing it token by token from
-left to right. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm }.
+left to right. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm}.
@item Lexical analyzer (scanner)
A function that reads an input stream and returns tokens one by one.
A token already read but not yet shifted. @xref{Look-Ahead, ,Look-Ahead
Tokens}.
-@item LALR(1)
+@item @acronym{LALR}(1)
The class of context-free grammars that Bison (like most other parser
-generators) can handle; a subset of LR(1). @xref{Mystery Conflicts, ,
-Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}.
+generators) can handle; a subset of @acronym{LR}(1). @xref{Mystery
+Conflicts, ,Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}.
-@item LR(1)
+@item @acronym{LR}(1)
The class of context-free grammars in which at most one token of
look-ahead is needed to disambiguate the parsing of any piece of input.
be expressed through rules in terms of smaller constructs; in other
words, a construct that is not a token. @xref{Symbols}.
-@item Parse error
-An error encountered during parsing of an input stream due to invalid
-syntax. @xref{Error Recovery}.
-
@item Parser
A function that recognizes valid sentences of a language by analyzing
the syntax structure of a set of tokens passed to it from a lexical
@item Reduction
Replacing a string of nonterminals and/or terminals with a single
nonterminal, according to a grammar rule. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison
-Parser Algorithm }.
+Parser Algorithm}.
@item Reentrant
A reentrant subprogram is a subprogram which can be in invoked any
@item Shift
A parser is said to shift when it makes the choice of analyzing
further input from the stream rather than reducing immediately some
-already-recognized rule. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm }.
+already-recognized rule. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm}.
@item Single-character literal
A single character that is recognized and interpreted as is.
during parsing to allow for recognition and use of existing
information in repeated uses of a symbol. @xref{Multi-function Calc}.
+@item Syntax error
+An error encountered during parsing of an input stream due to invalid
+syntax. @xref{Error Recovery}.
+
@item Token
A basic, grammatically indivisible unit of a language. The symbol
that describes a token in the grammar is a terminal symbol.
@xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}.
@end table
-@node Copying This Manual, Index, Glossary, Top
+@node Copying This Manual
@appendix Copying This Manual
-
+
@menu
* GNU Free Documentation License:: License for copying this manual.
@end menu
-
+
@include fdl.texi
-@node Index, , Copying This Manual, Top
+@node Index
@unnumbered Index
@printindex cp
projects / bison.git / blobdiff