This manual (@value{UPDATED}) is for @acronym{GNU} Bison (version
@value{VERSION}), the @acronym{GNU} parser generator.
-Copyright @copyright{} 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1998,
-1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Free Software
-Foundation, Inc.
+Copyright @copyright{} 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1998, 1999,
+2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 Free
+Software Foundation, Inc.
@quotation
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the @acronym{GNU} Free Documentation License,
-Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software
+Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover texts
being ``A @acronym{GNU} Manual,'' and with the Back-Cover Texts as in
(a) below. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled
* Simple GLR Parsers:: Using @acronym{GLR} parsers on unambiguous grammars.
* Merging GLR Parses:: Using @acronym{GLR} parsers to resolve ambiguities.
* GLR Semantic Actions:: Deferred semantic actions have special concerns.
+* Semantic Predicates:: Controlling a parse with arbitrary computations.
* Compiler Requirements:: @acronym{GLR} parsers require a modern C compiler.
Examples
* Mid-Rule Actions:: Most actions go at the end of a rule.
This says when, why and how to use the exceptional
action in the middle of a rule.
+* Named References:: Using named references in actions.
Tracking Locations
@cindex introduction
@dfn{Bison} is a general-purpose parser generator that converts an
-annotated context-free grammar into an @acronym{LALR}(1) or
-@acronym{GLR} parser for that grammar. Once you are proficient with
-Bison, you can use it to develop a wide range of language parsers, from those
-used in simple desk calculators to complex programming languages.
+annotated context-free grammar into a deterministic @acronym{LR} or
+generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) parser employing
+@acronym{LALR}(1), @acronym{IELR}(1), or canonical @acronym{LR}(1)
+parser tables.
+Once you are proficient with Bison, you can use it to develop a wide
+range of language parsers, from those used in simple desk calculators to
+complex programming languages.
Bison is upward compatible with Yacc: all properly-written Yacc grammars
ought to work with Bison with no change. Anyone familiar with Yacc
essentially machine-readable @acronym{BNF}.
@cindex @acronym{LALR}(1) grammars
+@cindex @acronym{IELR}(1) grammars
@cindex @acronym{LR}(1) grammars
-There are various important subclasses of context-free grammar. Although it
-can handle almost all context-free grammars, Bison is optimized for what
-are called @acronym{LALR}(1) grammars.
-In brief, in these grammars, it must be possible to
-tell how to parse any portion of an input string with just a single
-token of lookahead. Strictly speaking, that is a description of an
-@acronym{LR}(1) grammar, and @acronym{LALR}(1) involves additional
-restrictions that are
-hard to explain simply; but it is rare in actual practice to find an
-@acronym{LR}(1) grammar that fails to be @acronym{LALR}(1).
+There are various important subclasses of context-free grammars.
+Although it can handle almost all context-free grammars, Bison is
+optimized for what are called @acronym{LR}(1) grammars.
+In brief, in these grammars, it must be possible to tell how to parse
+any portion of an input string with just a single token of lookahead.
+For historical reasons, Bison by default is limited by the additional
+restrictions of @acronym{LALR}(1), which is hard to explain simply.
@xref{Mystery Conflicts, ,Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}, for
more information on this.
+To escape these additional restrictions, you can request
+@acronym{IELR}(1) or canonical @acronym{LR}(1) parser tables.
+@xref{Decl Summary,,lr.type}, to learn how.
@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsing
@cindex generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) parsing
@cindex ambiguous grammars
@cindex nondeterministic parsing
-Parsers for @acronym{LALR}(1) grammars are @dfn{deterministic}, meaning
+Parsers for @acronym{LR}(1) grammars are @dfn{deterministic}, meaning
roughly that the next grammar rule to apply at any point in the input is
uniquely determined by the preceding input and a fixed, finite portion
(called a @dfn{lookahead}) of the remaining input. A context-free
@cindex shift/reduce conflicts
@cindex reduce/reduce conflicts
-In some grammars, Bison's standard
-@acronym{LALR}(1) parsing algorithm cannot decide whether to apply a
+In some grammars, Bison's deterministic
+@acronym{LR}(1) parsing algorithm cannot decide whether to apply a
certain grammar rule at a given point. That is, it may not be able to
decide (on the basis of the input read so far) which of two possible
reductions (applications of a grammar rule) applies, or whether to apply
(@pxref{Reduce/Reduce}), and @dfn{shift/reduce} conflicts
(@pxref{Shift/Reduce}).
-To use a grammar that is not easily modified to be @acronym{LALR}(1), a
+To use a grammar that is not easily modified to be @acronym{LR}(1), a
more general parsing algorithm is sometimes necessary. If you include
@code{%glr-parser} among the Bison declarations in your file
(@pxref{Grammar Outline}), the result is a Generalized @acronym{LR}
(@acronym{GLR}) parser. These parsers handle Bison grammars that
contain no unresolved conflicts (i.e., after applying precedence
-declarations) identically to @acronym{LALR}(1) parsers. However, when
+declarations) identically to deterministic parsers. However, when
faced with unresolved shift/reduce and reduce/reduce conflicts,
@acronym{GLR} parsers use the simple expedient of doing both,
effectively cloning the parser to follow both possibilities. Each of
* Simple GLR Parsers:: Using @acronym{GLR} parsers on unambiguous grammars.
* Merging GLR Parses:: Using @acronym{GLR} parsers to resolve ambiguities.
* GLR Semantic Actions:: Deferred semantic actions have special concerns.
+* Semantic Predicates:: Controlling a parse with arbitrary computations.
* Compiler Requirements:: @acronym{GLR} parsers require a modern C compiler.
@end menu
@cindex shift/reduce conflicts
In the simplest cases, you can use the @acronym{GLR} algorithm
-to parse grammars that are unambiguous, but fail to be @acronym{LALR}(1).
-Such grammars typically require more than one symbol of lookahead,
-or (in rare cases) fall into the category of grammars in which the
-@acronym{LALR}(1) algorithm throws away too much information (they are in
-@acronym{LR}(1), but not @acronym{LALR}(1), @ref{Mystery Conflicts}).
+to parse grammars that are unambiguous but fail to be @acronym{LR}(1).
+Such grammars typically require more than one symbol of lookahead.
Consider a problem that
arises in the declaration of enumerated and subrange types in the
valid, and more-complicated cases can come up in practical programs.)
These two declarations look identical until the @samp{..} token.
-With normal @acronym{LALR}(1) one-token lookahead it is not
+With normal @acronym{LR}(1) one-token lookahead it is not
possible to decide between the two forms when the identifier
@samp{a} is parsed. It is, however, desirable
for a parser to decide this, since in the latter case
The effect of all this is that the parser seems to ``guess'' the
correct branch to take, or in other words, it seems to use more
-lookahead than the underlying @acronym{LALR}(1) algorithm actually allows
-for. In this example, @acronym{LALR}(2) would suffice, but also some cases
-that are not @acronym{LALR}(@math{k}) for any @math{k} can be handled this way.
+lookahead than the underlying @acronym{LR}(1) algorithm actually allows
+for. In this example, @acronym{LR}(2) would suffice, but also some cases
+that are not @acronym{LR}(@math{k}) for any @math{k} can be handled this way.
In general, a @acronym{GLR} parser can take quadratic or cubic worst-case time,
and the current Bison parser even takes exponential time and space
@end group
@end example
-When used as a normal @acronym{LALR}(1) grammar, Bison correctly complains
+When used as a normal @acronym{LR}(1) grammar, Bison correctly complains
about one reduce/reduce conflict. In the conflicting situation the
parser chooses one of the alternatives, arbitrarily the one
declared first. Therefore the following correct input is not
analyze the conflicts reported by Bison to make sure that @acronym{GLR}
splitting is only done where it is intended. A @acronym{GLR} parser
splitting inadvertently may cause problems less obvious than an
-@acronym{LALR} parser statically choosing the wrong alternative in a
+@acronym{LR} parser statically choosing the wrong alternative in a
conflict. Second, consider interactions with the lexer (@pxref{Semantic
Tokens}) with great care. Since a split parser consumes tokens without
performing any actions during the split, the lexer cannot obtain
(@pxref{Action Features}), which you can invoke in a semantic action to
initiate error recovery.
During deterministic @acronym{GLR} operation, the effect of @code{YYERROR} is
-the same as its effect in an @acronym{LALR}(1) parser.
+the same as its effect in a deterministic parser.
In a deferred semantic action, its effect is undefined.
@c The effect is probably a syntax error at the split point.
Also, see @ref{Location Default Action, ,Default Action for Locations}, which
describes a special usage of @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT} in @acronym{GLR} parsers.
+@node Semantic Predicates
+@subsection Controlling a Parse with Arbitrary Predicates
+@findex %?
+@cindex Semantic predicates in @acronym{GLR} parsers
+
+In addition to the @code{%dprec} and @code{%merge} directives,
+@acronym{GLR} parsers
+allow you to reject parses on the basis of arbitrary computations executed
+in user code, without having Bison treat this rejection as an error
+if there are alternative parses. (This feature is experimental and may
+evolve. We welcome user feedback.) For example,
+
+@smallexample
+widget :
+ %?@{ new_syntax @} "widget" id new_args @{ $$ = f($3, $4); @}
+ | %?@{ !new_syntax @} "widget" id old_args @{ $$ = f($3, $4); @}
+ ;
+@end smallexample
+
+@noindent
+is one way to allow the same parser to handle two different syntaxes for
+widgets. The clause preceded by @code{%?} is treated like an ordinary
+action, except that its text is treated as an expression and is always
+evaluated immediately (even when in nondeterministic mode). If the
+expression yields 0 (false), the clause is treated as a syntax error,
+which, in a nondeterministic parser, causes the stack in which it is reduced
+to die. In a deterministic parser, it acts like YYERROR.
+
+As the example shows, predicates otherwise look like semantic actions, and
+therefore you must be take them into account when determining the numbers
+to use for denoting the semantic values of right-hand side symbols.
+Predicate actions, however, have no defined value, and may not be given
+labels.
+
+There is a subtle difference between semantic predicates and ordinary
+actions in nondeterministic mode, since the latter are deferred.
+For example, we could try to rewrite the previous example as
+
+@smallexample
+widget :
+ @{ if (!new_syntax) YYERROR; @} "widget" id new_args @{ $$ = f($3, $4); @}
+ | @{ if (new_syntax) YYERROR; @} "widget" id old_args @{ $$ = f($3, $4); @}
+ ;
+@end smallexample
+
+@noindent
+(reversing the sense of the predicate tests to cause an error when they are
+false). However, this
+does @emph{not} have the same effect if @code{new_args} and @code{old_args}
+have overlapping syntax.
+Since the mid-rule actions testing @code{new_syntax} are deferred,
+a @acronym{GLR} parser first encounters the unresolved ambiguous reduction
+for cases where @code{new_args} and @code{old_args} recognize the same string
+@emph{before} performing the tests of @code{new_syntax}. It therefore
+reports an error.
+
+Finally, be careful in writing predicates: deferred actions have not been
+evaluated, so that using them in a predicate will have undefined effects.
+
@node Compiler Requirements
@subsection Considerations when Compiling @acronym{GLR} Parsers
@cindex @code{inline}
@findex %code requires
@findex %code provides
@findex %code top
-(The prologue alternatives described here are experimental.
-More user feedback will help to determine whether they should become permanent
-features.)
The functionality of @var{Prologue} sections can often be subtle and
inflexible.
equivalent groupings. The symbol name is used in writing grammar rules.
By convention, it should be all lower case.
-Symbol names can contain letters, digits (not at the beginning),
-underscores and periods. Periods make sense only in nonterminals.
+Symbol names can contain letters, underscores, periods, dashes, and (not
+at the beginning) digits. Dashes in symbol names are a GNU
+extension, incompatible with @acronym{POSIX} Yacc. Terminal symbols
+that contain periods or dashes make little sense: since they are not
+valid symbols (in most programming languages) they are not exported as
+token names.
There are three ways of writing terminal symbols in the grammar:
* Mid-Rule Actions:: Most actions go at the end of a rule.
This says when, why and how to use the exceptional
action in the middle of a rule.
+* Named References:: Using named references in actions.
@end menu
@node Value Type
@cindex action
@vindex $$
@vindex $@var{n}
+@vindex $@var{name}
+@vindex $[@var{name}]
An action accompanies a syntactic rule and contains C code to be executed
each time an instance of that rule is recognized. The task of most actions
The C code in an action can refer to the semantic values of the components
matched by the rule with the construct @code{$@var{n}}, which stands for
the value of the @var{n}th component. The semantic value for the grouping
-being constructed is @code{$$}. Bison translates both of these
+being constructed is @code{$$}. In addition, the semantic values of
+symbols can be accessed with the named references construct
+@code{$@var{name}} or @code{$[@var{name}]}. Bison translates both of these
constructs into expressions of the appropriate type when it copies the
-actions into the parser file. @code{$$} is translated to a modifiable
+actions into the parser file. @code{$$} (or @code{$@var{name}}, when it
+stands for the current grouping) is translated to a modifiable
lvalue, so it can be assigned to.
Here is a typical example:
@end group
@end example
+Or, in terms of named references:
+
+@example
+@group
+exp[result]: @dots{}
+ | exp[left] '+' exp[right]
+ @{ $result = $left + $right; @}
+@end group
+@end example
+
@noindent
This rule constructs an @code{exp} from two smaller @code{exp} groupings
connected by a plus-sign token. In the action, @code{$1} and @code{$3}
+(@code{$left} and @code{$right})
refer to the semantic values of the two component @code{exp} groupings,
which are the first and third symbols on the right hand side of the rule.
-The sum is stored into @code{$$} so that it becomes the semantic value of
+The sum is stored into @code{$$} (@code{$result}) so that it becomes the
+semantic value of
the addition-expression just recognized by the rule. If there were a
useful semantic value associated with the @samp{+} token, it could be
referred to as @code{$2}.
+@xref{Named References,,Using Named References}, for more information
+about using the named references construct.
+
Note that the vertical-bar character @samp{|} is really a rule
separator, and actions are attached to a single rule. This is a
difference with tools like Flex, for which @samp{|} stands for either
Now Bison can execute the action in the rule for @code{subroutine} without
deciding which rule for @code{compound} it will eventually use.
+@node Named References
+@subsection Using Named References
+@cindex named references
+
+While every semantic value can be accessed with positional references
+@code{$@var{n}} and @code{$$}, it's often much more convenient to refer to
+them by name. First of all, original symbol names may be used as named
+references. For example:
+
+@example
+@group
+invocation: op '(' args ')'
+ @{ $invocation = new_invocation ($op, $args, @@invocation); @}
+@end group
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+The positional @code{$$}, @code{@@$}, @code{$n}, and @code{@@n} can be
+mixed with @code{$name} and @code{@@name} arbitrarily. For example:
+
+@example
+@group
+invocation: op '(' args ')'
+ @{ $$ = new_invocation ($op, $args, @@$); @}
+@end group
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+However, sometimes regular symbol names are not sufficient due to
+ambiguities:
+
+@example
+@group
+exp: exp '/' exp
+ @{ $exp = $exp / $exp; @} // $exp is ambiguous.
+
+exp: exp '/' exp
+ @{ $$ = $1 / $exp; @} // One usage is ambiguous.
+
+exp: exp '/' exp
+ @{ $$ = $1 / $3; @} // No error.
+@end group
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+When ambiguity occurs, explicitly declared names may be used for values and
+locations. Explicit names are declared as a bracketed name after a symbol
+appearance in rule definitions. For example:
+@example
+@group
+exp[result]: exp[left] '/' exp[right]
+ @{ $result = $left / $right; @}
+@end group
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+Explicit names may be declared for RHS and for LHS symbols as well. In order
+to access a semantic value generated by a mid-rule action, an explicit name
+may also be declared by putting a bracketed name after the closing brace of
+the mid-rule action code:
+@example
+@group
+exp[res]: exp[x] '+' @{$left = $x;@}[left] exp[right]
+ @{ $res = $left + $right; @}
+@end group
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+
+In references, in order to specify names containing dots and dashes, an explicit
+bracketed syntax @code{$[name]} and @code{@@[name]} must be used:
+@example
+@group
+if-stmt: IF '(' expr ')' THEN then.stmt ';'
+ @{ $[if-stmt] = new_if_stmt ($expr, $[then.stmt]); @}
+@end group
+@end example
+
+It often happens that named references are followed by a dot, dash or other
+C punctuation marks and operators. By default, Bison will read
+@code{$name.suffix} as a reference to symbol value @code{$name} followed by
+@samp{.suffix}, i.e., an access to the @samp{suffix} field of the semantic
+value. In order to force Bison to recognize @code{name.suffix} in its entirety
+as the name of a semantic value, bracketed syntax @code{$[name.suffix]}
+must be used.
+
+
@node Locations
@section Tracking Locations
@cindex location
@} YYLTYPE;
@end example
-At the beginning of the parsing, Bison initializes all these fields to 1
-for @code{yylloc}.
+When @code{YYLTYPE} is not defined, at the beginning of the parsing, Bison
+initializes all these fields to 1 for @code{yylloc}. To initialize
+@code{yylloc} with a custom location type (or to chose a different
+initialization), use the @code{%initial-action} directive. @xref{Initial
+Action Decl, , Performing Actions before Parsing}.
@node Actions and Locations
@subsection Actions and Locations
@cindex actions, location
@vindex @@$
@vindex @@@var{n}
+@vindex @@@var{name}
+@vindex @@[@var{name}]
Actions are not only useful for defining language semantics, but also for
describing the behavior of the output parser with locations.
@code{@@@var{n}}, while the location of the left hand side grouping is
@code{@@$}.
+In addition, the named references construct @code{@@@var{name}} and
+@code{@@[@var{name}]} may also be used to address the symbol locations.
+@xref{Named References,,Using Named References}, for more information
+about using the named references construct.
+
Here is a basic example using the default data type for locations:
@example
Bison reports an error if the number of shift/reduce conflicts differs
from @var{n}, or if there are any reduce/reduce conflicts.
-For normal @acronym{LALR}(1) parsers, reduce/reduce conflicts are more
+For deterministic parsers, reduce/reduce conflicts are more
serious, and should be eliminated entirely. Bison will always report
reduce/reduce conflicts for these parsers. With @acronym{GLR}
parsers, however, both kinds of conflicts are routine; otherwise,
including @code{yylval} and @code{yylloc}.)
Alternatively, you can generate a pure, reentrant parser. The Bison
-declaration @code{%define api.pure} says that you want the parser to be
+declaration @samp{%define api.pure} says that you want the parser to be
reentrant. It looks like this:
@example
@subsection A Push Parser
@cindex push parser
@cindex push parser
-@findex %define api.push_pull
+@findex %define api.push-pull
(The current push parsing interface is experimental and may evolve.
More user feedback will help to stabilize it.)
Normally, Bison generates a pull parser.
The following Bison declaration says that you want the parser to be a push
-parser (@pxref{Decl Summary,,%define api.push_pull}):
+parser (@pxref{Decl Summary,,%define api.push-pull}):
@example
-%define api.push_pull "push"
+%define api.push-pull push
@end example
In almost all cases, you want to ensure that your push parser is also
@example
%define api.pure
-%define api.push_pull "push"
+%define api.push-pull push
@end example
There is a major notable functional difference between the pure push parser
Bison also supports both the push parser interface along with the pull parser
interface in the same generated parser. In order to get this functionality,
-you should replace the @code{%define api.push_pull "push"} declaration with the
-@code{%define api.push_pull "both"} declaration. Doing this will create all of
+you should replace the @samp{%define api.push-pull push} declaration with the
+@samp{%define api.push-pull both} declaration. Doing this will create all of
the symbols mentioned earlier along with the two extra symbols, @code{yyparse}
and @code{yypull_parse}. @code{yyparse} can be used exactly as it normally
would be used. However, the user should note that it is implemented in the
generated parser by calling @code{yypull_parse}.
This makes the @code{yyparse} function that is generated with the
-@code{%define api.push_pull "both"} declaration slower than the normal
+@samp{%define api.push-pull both} declaration slower than the normal
@code{yyparse} function. If the user
calls the @code{yypull_parse} function it will parse the rest of the input
stream. It is possible to @code{yypush_parse} tokens to select a subgrammar
yypstate_delete (ps);
@end example
-Adding the @code{%define api.pure} declaration does exactly the same thing to
-the generated parser with @code{%define api.push_pull "both"} as it did for
-@code{%define api.push_pull "push"}.
+Adding the @samp{%define api.pure} declaration does exactly the same thing to
+the generated parser with @samp{%define api.push-pull both} as it did for
+@samp{%define api.push-pull push}.
@node Decl Summary
@subsection Bison Declaration Summary
For a detailed discussion, see @ref{Prologue Alternatives}.
For Java, the default location is inside the parser class.
-
-(Like all the Yacc prologue alternatives, this directive is experimental.
-More user feedback will help to determine whether it should become a permanent
-feature.)
@end deffn
@deffn {Directive} %code @var{qualifier} @{@var{code}@}
@var{qualifier} identifies the purpose of @var{code} and thus the location(s)
where Bison should generate it.
-Not all values of @var{qualifier} are available for all target languages:
+Not all @var{qualifier}s are accepted for all target languages.
+Unaccepted @var{qualifier}s produce an error.
+Some of the accepted @var{qualifier}s are:
@itemize @bullet
@item requires
@end itemize
@end itemize
-(Like all the Yacc prologue alternatives, this directive is experimental.
-More user feedback will help to determine whether it should become a permanent
-feature.)
-
@cindex Prologue
For a detailed discussion of how to use @code{%code} in place of the
traditional Yacc prologue for C/C++, see @ref{Prologue Alternatives}.
@end deffn
@deffn {Directive} %debug
-In the parser file, define the macro @code{YYDEBUG} to 1 if it is not
-already defined, so that the debugging facilities are compiled.
-@end deffn
+Instrument the output parser for traces. Obsoleted by @samp{%define
+parse.trace}.
@xref{Tracing, ,Tracing Your Parser}.
+@end deffn
@deffn {Directive} %define @var{variable}
+@deffnx {Directive} %define @var{variable} @var{value}
@deffnx {Directive} %define @var{variable} "@var{value}"
Define a variable to adjust Bison's behavior.
-The possible choices for @var{variable}, as well as their meanings, depend on
-the selected target language and/or the parser skeleton (@pxref{Decl
-Summary,,%language}, @pxref{Decl Summary,,%skeleton}).
-Bison will warn if a @var{variable} is defined multiple times.
+It is an error if a @var{variable} is defined by @code{%define} multiple
+times, but see @ref{Bison Options,,-D @var{name}[=@var{value}]}.
+
+@var{value} must be placed in quotation marks if it contains any
+character other than a letter, underscore, period, dash, or non-initial
+digit.
-Omitting @code{"@var{value}"} is always equivalent to specifying it as
+Omitting @code{"@var{value}"} entirely is always equivalent to specifying
@code{""}.
-Some @var{variable}s may be used as Booleans.
+Some @var{variable}s take Boolean values.
In this case, Bison will complain if the variable definition does not meet one
of the following four conditions:
@enumerate
-@item @code{"@var{value}"} is @code{"true"}
+@item @code{@var{value}} is @code{true}
-@item @code{"@var{value}"} is omitted (or is @code{""}).
-This is equivalent to @code{"true"}.
+@item @code{@var{value}} is omitted (or @code{""} is specified).
+This is equivalent to @code{true}.
-@item @code{"@var{value}"} is @code{"false"}.
+@item @code{@var{value}} is @code{false}.
@item @var{variable} is never defined.
-In this case, Bison selects a default value, which may depend on the selected
-target language and/or parser skeleton.
+In this case, Bison selects a default value.
@end enumerate
+What @var{variable}s are accepted, as well as their meanings and default
+values, depend on the selected target language and/or the parser
+skeleton (@pxref{Decl Summary,,%language}, @pxref{Decl
+Summary,,%skeleton}).
+Unaccepted @var{variable}s produce an error.
Some of the accepted @var{variable}s are:
-@itemize @bullet
+@table @code
+@c ================================================== api.namespace
+@item api.namespace
+@findex %define api.namespace
+@itemize
+@item Languages(s): C++
+
+@item Purpose: Specifies the namespace for the parser class.
+For example, if you specify:
+
+@smallexample
+%define api.namespace "foo::bar"
+@end smallexample
+
+Bison uses @code{foo::bar} verbatim in references such as:
+
+@smallexample
+foo::bar::parser::semantic_type
+@end smallexample
+
+However, to open a namespace, Bison removes any leading @code{::} and then
+splits on any remaining occurrences:
+
+@smallexample
+namespace foo @{ namespace bar @{
+ class position;
+ class location;
+@} @}
+@end smallexample
+
+@item Accepted Values:
+Any absolute or relative C++ namespace reference without a trailing
+@code{"::"}. For example, @code{"foo"} or @code{"::foo::bar"}.
+
+@item Default Value:
+The value specified by @code{%name-prefix}, which defaults to @code{yy}.
+This usage of @code{%name-prefix} is for backward compatibility and can
+be confusing since @code{%name-prefix} also specifies the textual prefix
+for the lexical analyzer function. Thus, if you specify
+@code{%name-prefix}, it is best to also specify @samp{%define
+api.namespace} so that @code{%name-prefix} @emph{only} affects the
+lexical analyzer function. For example, if you specify:
+
+@smallexample
+%define api.namespace "foo"
+%name-prefix "bar::"
+@end smallexample
+
+The parser namespace is @code{foo} and @code{yylex} is referenced as
+@code{bar::lex}.
+@end itemize
+@c namespace
+
+
+
+@c ================================================== api.pure
@item api.pure
@findex %define api.pure
@item Accepted Values: Boolean
-@item Default Value: @code{"false"}
+@item Default Value: @code{false}
@end itemize
+@c api.pure
+
-@item api.push_pull
-@findex %define api.push_pull
+
+@c ================================================== api.push-pull
+@item api.push-pull
+@findex %define api.push-pull
@itemize @bullet
-@item Language(s): C (LALR(1) only)
+@item Language(s): C (deterministic parsers only)
@item Purpose: Requests a pull parser, a push parser, or both.
@xref{Push Decl, ,A Push Parser}.
(The current push parsing interface is experimental and may evolve.
More user feedback will help to stabilize it.)
-@item Accepted Values: @code{"pull"}, @code{"push"}, @code{"both"}
+@item Accepted Values: @code{pull}, @code{push}, @code{both}
+
+@item Default Value: @code{pull}
+@end itemize
+@c api.push-pull
+
+
+
+@c ================================================== api.tokens.prefix
+@item api.tokens.prefix
+@findex %define api.tokens.prefix
+
+@itemize
+@item Languages(s): all
+
+@item Purpose:
+Add a prefix to the token names when generating their definition in the
+target language. For instance
+
+@example
+%token FILE for ERROR
+%define api.tokens.prefix "TOK_"
+%%
+start: FILE for ERROR;
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+generates the definition of the symbols @code{TOK_FILE}, @code{TOK_for},
+and @code{TOK_ERROR} in the generated source files. In particular, the
+scanner must use these prefixed token names, while the grammar itself
+may still use the short names (as in the sample rule given above). The
+generated informational files (@file{*.output}, @file{*.xml},
+@file{*.dot}) are not modified by this prefix. See @ref{Calc++ Parser}
+and @ref{Calc++ Scanner}, for a complete example.
+
+@item Accepted Values:
+Any string. Should be a valid identifier prefix in the target language,
+in other words, it should typically be an identifier itself (sequence of
+letters, underscores, and ---not at the beginning--- digits).
+
+@item Default Value:
+empty
+@end itemize
+@c api.tokens.prefix
+
+
+@c ================================================== lex_symbol
+@item variant
+@findex %define lex_symbol
+
+@itemize @bullet
+@item Language(s):
+C++
+
+@item Purpose:
+When variant-based semantic values are enabled (@pxref{C++ Variants}),
+request that symbols be handled as a whole (type, value, and possibly
+location) in the scanner. @xref{Complete Symbols}, for details.
+
+@item Accepted Values:
+Boolean.
+
+@item Default Value:
+@code{false}
+@end itemize
+@c lex_symbol
+
+
+@c ================================================== lr.default-reductions
+
+@item lr.default-reductions
+@cindex default reductions
+@findex %define lr.default-reductions
+@cindex delayed syntax errors
+@cindex syntax errors delayed
+
+@itemize @bullet
+@item Language(s): all
+
+@item Purpose: Specifies the kind of states that are permitted to
+contain default reductions.
+That is, in such a state, Bison declares the reduction with the largest
+lookahead set to be the default reduction and then removes that
+lookahead set.
+The advantages of default reductions are discussed below.
+The disadvantage is that, when the generated parser encounters a
+syntactically unacceptable token, the parser might then perform
+unnecessary default reductions before it can detect the syntax error.
+
+(This feature is experimental.
+More user feedback will help to stabilize it.)
+
+@item Accepted Values:
+@itemize
+@item @code{all}.
+For @acronym{LALR} and @acronym{IELR} parsers (@pxref{Decl
+Summary,,lr.type}) by default, all states are permitted to contain
+default reductions.
+The advantage is that parser table sizes can be significantly reduced.
+The reason Bison does not by default attempt to address the disadvantage
+of delayed syntax error detection is that this disadvantage is already
+inherent in @acronym{LALR} and @acronym{IELR} parser tables.
+That is, unlike in a canonical @acronym{LR} state, the lookahead sets of
+reductions in an @acronym{LALR} or @acronym{IELR} state can contain
+tokens that are syntactically incorrect for some left contexts.
+
+@item @code{consistent}.
+@cindex consistent states
+A consistent state is a state that has only one possible action.
+If that action is a reduction, then the parser does not need to request
+a lookahead token from the scanner before performing that action.
+However, the parser only recognizes the ability to ignore the lookahead
+token when such a reduction is encoded as a default reduction.
+Thus, if default reductions are permitted in and only in consistent
+states, then a canonical @acronym{LR} parser reports a syntax error as
+soon as it @emph{needs} the syntactically unacceptable token from the
+scanner.
+
+@item @code{accepting}.
+@cindex accepting state
+By default, the only default reduction permitted in a canonical
+@acronym{LR} parser is the accept action in the accepting state, which
+the parser reaches only after reading all tokens from the input.
+Thus, the default canonical @acronym{LR} parser reports a syntax error
+as soon as it @emph{reaches} the syntactically unacceptable token
+without performing any extra reductions.
+@end itemize
-@item Default Value: @code{"pull"}
+@item Default Value:
+@itemize
+@item @code{accepting} if @code{lr.type} is @code{canonical-lr}.
+@item @code{all} otherwise.
+@end itemize
@end itemize
-@item lr.keep_unreachable_states
-@findex %define lr.keep_unreachable_states
+@c ============================================ lr.keep-unreachable-states
+
+@item lr.keep-unreachable-states
+@findex %define lr.keep-unreachable-states
@itemize @bullet
@item Language(s): all
@item Accepted Values: Boolean
-@item Default Value: @code{"false"}
+@item Default Value: @code{false}
@item Caveats:
However, Bison does not compute which goto actions are useless.
@end itemize
@end itemize
+@c lr.keep-unreachable-states
+
+@c ================================================== lr.type
+
+@item lr.type
+@findex %define lr.type
+@cindex @acronym{LALR}
+@cindex @acronym{IELR}
+@cindex @acronym{LR}
+
+@itemize @bullet
+@item Language(s): all
+@item Purpose: Specifies the type of parser tables within the
+@acronym{LR}(1) family.
+(This feature is experimental.
+More user feedback will help to stabilize it.)
+
+@item Accepted Values:
+@itemize
+@item @code{lalr}.
+While Bison generates @acronym{LALR} parser tables by default for
+historical reasons, @acronym{IELR} or canonical @acronym{LR} is almost
+always preferable for deterministic parsers.
+The trouble is that @acronym{LALR} parser tables can suffer from
+mysterious conflicts and thus may not accept the full set of sentences
+that @acronym{IELR} and canonical @acronym{LR} accept.
+@xref{Mystery Conflicts}, for details.
+However, there are at least two scenarios where @acronym{LALR} may be
+worthwhile:
+@itemize
+@cindex @acronym{GLR} with @acronym{LALR}
+@item When employing @acronym{GLR} parsers (@pxref{GLR Parsers}), if you
+do not resolve any conflicts statically (for example, with @code{%left}
+or @code{%prec}), then the parser explores all potential parses of any
+given input.
+In this case, the use of @acronym{LALR} parser tables is guaranteed not
+to alter the language accepted by the parser.
+@acronym{LALR} parser tables are the smallest parser tables Bison can
+currently generate, so they may be preferable.
+
+@item Occasionally during development, an especially malformed grammar
+with a major recurring flaw may severely impede the @acronym{IELR} or
+canonical @acronym{LR} parser table generation algorithm.
+@acronym{LALR} can be a quick way to generate parser tables in order to
+investigate such problems while ignoring the more subtle differences
+from @acronym{IELR} and canonical @acronym{LR}.
+@end itemize
+
+@item @code{ielr}.
+@acronym{IELR} is a minimal @acronym{LR} algorithm.
+That is, given any grammar (@acronym{LR} or non-@acronym{LR}),
+@acronym{IELR} and canonical @acronym{LR} always accept exactly the same
+set of sentences.
+However, as for @acronym{LALR}, the number of parser states is often an
+order of magnitude less for @acronym{IELR} than for canonical
+@acronym{LR}.
+More importantly, because canonical @acronym{LR}'s extra parser states
+may contain duplicate conflicts in the case of non-@acronym{LR}
+grammars, the number of conflicts for @acronym{IELR} is often an order
+of magnitude less as well.
+This can significantly reduce the complexity of developing of a grammar.
+
+@item @code{canonical-lr}.
+@cindex delayed syntax errors
+@cindex syntax errors delayed
+The only advantage of canonical @acronym{LR} over @acronym{IELR} is
+that, for every left context of every canonical @acronym{LR} state, the
+set of tokens accepted by that state is the exact set of tokens that is
+syntactically acceptable in that left context.
+Thus, the only difference in parsing behavior is that the canonical
+@acronym{LR} parser can report a syntax error as soon as possible
+without performing any unnecessary reductions.
+@xref{Decl Summary,,lr.default-reductions}, for further details.
+Even when canonical @acronym{LR} behavior is ultimately desired,
+@acronym{IELR}'s elimination of duplicate conflicts should still
+facilitate the development of a grammar.
+@end itemize
+
+@item Default Value: @code{lalr}
+@end itemize
+
+
+@c ================================================== namespace
@item namespace
@findex %define namespace
+Obsoleted by @code{api.namespace}
+@c namespace
+
+
+@c ================================================== parse.assert
+@item parse.assert
+@findex %define parse.assert
@itemize
@item Languages(s): C++
-@item Purpose: Specifies the namespace for the parser class.
-For example, if you specify:
+@item Purpose: Issue runtime assertions to catch invalid uses.
+In C++, when variants are used (@pxref{C++ Variants}), symbols must be
+constructed and
+destroyed properly. This option checks these constraints.
-@smallexample
-%define namespace "foo::bar"
-@end smallexample
+@item Accepted Values: Boolean
-Bison uses @code{foo::bar} verbatim in references such as:
+@item Default Value: @code{false}
+@end itemize
+@c parse.assert
-@smallexample
-foo::bar::parser::semantic_type
-@end smallexample
-However, to open a namespace, Bison removes any leading @code{::} and then
-splits on any remaining occurrences:
+@c ================================================== parse.error
+@item parse.error
+@findex %define parse.error
+@itemize
+@item Languages(s):
+all.
+@item Purpose:
+Control the kind of error messages passed to the error reporting
+function. @xref{Error Reporting, ,The Error Reporting Function
+@code{yyerror}}.
+@item Accepted Values:
+@itemize
+@item @code{simple}
+Error messages passed to @code{yyerror} are simply @w{@code{"syntax
+error"}}.
+@item @code{verbose}
+Error messages report the unexpected token, and possibly the expected
+ones.
+@end itemize
-@smallexample
-namespace foo @{ namespace bar @{
- class position;
- class location;
-@} @}
-@end smallexample
+@item Default Value:
+@code{simple}
+@end itemize
+@c parse.error
-@item Accepted Values: Any absolute or relative C++ namespace reference without
-a trailing @code{"::"}.
-For example, @code{"foo"} or @code{"::foo::bar"}.
-
-@item Default Value: The value specified by @code{%name-prefix}, which defaults
-to @code{yy}.
-This usage of @code{%name-prefix} is for backward compatibility and can be
-confusing since @code{%name-prefix} also specifies the textual prefix for the
-lexical analyzer function.
-Thus, if you specify @code{%name-prefix}, it is best to also specify
-@code{%define namespace} so that @code{%name-prefix} @emph{only} affects the
-lexical analyzer function.
-For example, if you specify:
-@smallexample
-%define namespace "foo"
-%name-prefix "bar::"
-@end smallexample
+@c ================================================== parse.trace
+@item parse.trace
+@findex %define parse.trace
-The parser namespace is @code{foo} and @code{yylex} is referenced as
-@code{bar::lex}.
+@itemize
+@item Languages(s): C, C++
+
+@item Purpose: Require parser instrumentation for tracing.
+In C/C++, define the macro @code{YYDEBUG} to 1 in the parser file if it
+is not already defined, so that the debugging facilities are compiled.
+@xref{Tracing, ,Tracing Your Parser}.
+
+@item Accepted Values: Boolean
+
+@item Default Value: @code{false}
@end itemize
+@c parse.trace
+
+@c ================================================== variant
+@item variant
+@findex %define variant
+
+@itemize @bullet
+@item Language(s):
+C++
+
+@item Purpose:
+Requests variant-based semantic values.
+@xref{C++ Variants}.
+
+@item Accepted Values:
+Boolean.
+
+@item Default Value:
+@code{false}
@end itemize
+@c variant
+
+@end table
@end deffn
+@c ---------------------------------------------------------- %define
@deffn {Directive} %defines
Write a header file containing macro definitions for the token type
@code{yypstate_new} and @code{yypstate_delete} will
also be renamed. For example, if you use @samp{%name-prefix "c_"}, the
names become @code{c_parse}, @code{c_lex}, and so on.
-For C++ parsers, see the @code{%define namespace} documentation in this
+For C++ parsers, see the @samp{%define api.namespace} documentation in this
section.
@xref{Multiple Parsers, ,Multiple Parsers in the Same Program}.
@end deffn
@end deffn
@deffn {Directive} %pure-parser
-Deprecated version of @code{%define api.pure} (@pxref{Decl Summary, ,%define}),
+Deprecated version of @samp{%define api.pure} (@pxref{Decl Summary, ,%define}),
for which Bison is more careful to warn about unreasonable usage.
@end deffn
parameter information to it in a reentrant way. To do so, use the
declaration @code{%parse-param}:
-@deffn {Directive} %parse-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@}
+@deffn {Directive} %parse-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} @dots{}
@findex %parse-param
-Declare that an argument declared by the braced-code
-@var{argument-declaration} is an additional @code{yyparse} argument.
+Declare that one or more
+@var{argument-declaration} are additional @code{yyparse} arguments.
The @var{argument-declaration} is used when declaring
functions or prototypes. The last identifier in
@var{argument-declaration} must be the argument name.
Here's an example. Write this in the parser:
@example
-%parse-param @{int *nastiness@}
-%parse-param @{int *randomness@}
+%parse-param @{int *nastiness@} @{int *randomness@}
@end example
@noindent
More user feedback will help to stabilize it.)
You call the function @code{yypush_parse} to parse a single token. This
-function is available if either the @code{%define api.push_pull "push"} or
-@code{%define api.push_pull "both"} declaration is used.
+function is available if either the @samp{%define api.push-pull push} or
+@samp{%define api.push-pull both} declaration is used.
@xref{Push Decl, ,A Push Parser}.
@deftypefun int yypush_parse (yypstate *yyps)
More user feedback will help to stabilize it.)
You call the function @code{yypull_parse} to parse the rest of the input
-stream. This function is available if the @code{%define api.push_pull "both"}
+stream. This function is available if the @samp{%define api.push-pull both}
declaration is used.
@xref{Push Decl, ,A Push Parser}.
More user feedback will help to stabilize it.)
You call the function @code{yypstate_new} to create a new parser instance.
-This function is available if either the @code{%define api.push_pull "push"} or
-@code{%define api.push_pull "both"} declaration is used.
+This function is available if either the @samp{%define api.push-pull push} or
+@samp{%define api.push-pull both} declaration is used.
@xref{Push Decl, ,A Push Parser}.
@deftypefun yypstate *yypstate_new (void)
-The fuction will return a valid parser instance if there was memory available
+The function will return a valid parser instance if there was memory available
or 0 if no memory was available.
In impure mode, it will also return 0 if a parser instance is currently
allocated.
More user feedback will help to stabilize it.)
You call the function @code{yypstate_delete} to delete a parser instance.
-function is available if either the @code{%define api.push_pull "push"} or
-@code{%define api.push_pull "both"} declaration is used.
+function is available if either the @samp{%define api.push-pull push} or
+@samp{%define api.push-pull both} declaration is used.
@xref{Push Decl, ,A Push Parser}.
@deftypefun void yypstate_delete (yypstate *yyps)
@node Pure Calling
@subsection Calling Conventions for Pure Parsers
-When you use the Bison declaration @code{%define api.pure} to request a
+When you use the Bison declaration @samp{%define api.pure} to request a
pure, reentrant parser, the global communication variables @code{yylval}
and @code{yylloc} cannot be used. (@xref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant)
Parser}.) In such parsers the two global variables are replaced by
this case, omit the second argument; @code{yylex} will be called with
only one argument.
-
-If you wish to pass the additional parameter data to @code{yylex}, use
+If you wish to pass additional arguments to @code{yylex}, use
@code{%lex-param} just like @code{%parse-param} (@pxref{Parser
-Function}).
+Function}). To pass additional arguments to both @code{yylex} and
+@code{yyparse}, use @code{%param}.
-@deffn {Directive} lex-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@}
+@deffn {Directive} %lex-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} @dots{}
@findex %lex-param
-Declare that the braced-code @var{argument-declaration} is an
-additional @code{yylex} argument declaration.
+Specify that @var{argument-declaration} are additional @code{yylex} argument
+declarations. You may pass one or more such declarations, which is
+equivalent to repeating @code{%lex-param}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} @dots{}
+@findex %param
+Specify that @var{argument-declaration} are additional
+@code{yylex}/@code{yyparse} argument declaration. This is equivalent to
+@samp{%lex-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} @dots{} %parse-param
+@{@var{argument-declaration}@} @dots{}}. You may pass one or more
+declarations, which is equivalent to repeating @code{%param}.
@end deffn
For instance:
@example
-%parse-param @{int *nastiness@}
-%lex-param @{int *nastiness@}
-%parse-param @{int *randomness@}
+%lex-param @{scanner_mode *mode@}
+%parse-param @{parser_mode *mode@}
+%param @{environment_type *env@}
@end example
@noindent
results in the following signature:
@example
-int yylex (int *nastiness);
-int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness);
+int yylex (scanner_mode *mode, environment_type *env);
+int yyparse (parser_mode *mode, environment_type *env);
@end example
-If @code{%define api.pure} is added:
+If @samp{%define api.pure} is added:
@example
-int yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, int *nastiness);
-int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness);
+int yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, scanner_mode *mode, environment_type *env);
+int yyparse (parser_mode *mode, environment_type *env);
@end example
@noindent
-and finally, if both @code{%define api.pure} and @code{%locations} are used:
+and finally, if both @samp{%define api.pure} and @code{%locations} are used:
@example
-int yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, YYLTYPE *llocp, int *nastiness);
-int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness);
+int yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, YYLTYPE *llocp,
+ scanner_mode *mode, environment_type *env);
+int yyparse (parser_mode *mode, environment_type *env);
@end example
@node Error Reporting
@cindex parse error
@cindex syntax error
-The Bison parser detects a @dfn{syntax error} or @dfn{parse error}
+The Bison parser detects a @dfn{syntax error} (or @dfn{parse error})
whenever it reads a token which cannot satisfy any syntax rule. An
action in the grammar can also explicitly proclaim an error, using the
macro @code{YYERROR} (@pxref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use
receives one argument. For a syntax error, the string is normally
@w{@code{"syntax error"}}.
-@findex %error-verbose
-If you invoke the directive @code{%error-verbose} in the Bison
+@findex %define parse.error
+If you invoke @samp{%define parse.error verbose} in the Bison
declarations section (@pxref{Bison Declarations, ,The Bison Declarations
Section}), then Bison provides a more verbose and specific error message
string instead of just plain @w{@code{"syntax error"}}.
Finally, @acronym{GLR} and Yacc parsers share the same @code{yyerror} calling
convention for absolutely pure parsers, i.e., when the calling
convention of @code{yylex} @emph{and} the calling convention of
-@code{%define api.pure} are pure.
+@samp{%define api.pure} are pure.
I.e.:
@example
related) conflicts that would remain hidden.
The dangling @code{else} ambiguity (@pxref{Shift/Reduce, , Shift/Reduce
-Conflicts}) can be solved explictly. This shift/reduce conflicts occurs
+Conflicts}) can be solved explicitly. This shift/reduce conflicts occurs
in the following situation, where the period denotes the current parsing
state:
The unary-minus is another typical example where associativity is
usually over-specified, see @ref{Infix Calc, , Infix Notation
-Calculator: @code{calc}}. The @code{%left} directive is traditionaly
+Calculator: @code{calc}}. The @code{%left} directive is traditionally
used to declare the precedence of @code{NEG}, which is more than needed
since it also defines its associativity. While this is harmless in the
traditional example, who knows how @code{NEG} might be used in future
@cindex @acronym{LR}(1)
@cindex @acronym{LALR}(1)
-However, Bison, like most parser generators, cannot actually handle all
-@acronym{LR}(1) grammars. In this grammar, two contexts, that after
-an @code{ID}
-at the beginning of a @code{param_spec} and likewise at the beginning of
-a @code{return_spec}, are similar enough that Bison assumes they are the
-same. They appear similar because the same set of rules would be
+However, for historical reasons, Bison cannot by default handle all
+@acronym{LR}(1) grammars.
+In this grammar, two contexts, that after an @code{ID} at the beginning
+of a @code{param_spec} and likewise at the beginning of a
+@code{return_spec}, are similar enough that Bison assumes they are the
+same.
+They appear similar because the same set of rules would be
active---the rule for reducing to a @code{name} and that for reducing to
a @code{type}. Bison is unable to determine at that stage of processing
that the rules would require different lookahead tokens in the two
the two contexts causes a conflict later. In parser terminology, this
occurrence means that the grammar is not @acronym{LALR}(1).
-In general, it is better to fix deficiencies than to document them. But
-this particular deficiency is intrinsically hard to fix; parser
-generators that can handle @acronym{LR}(1) grammars are hard to write
-and tend to
-produce parsers that are very large. In practice, Bison is more useful
-as it is now.
-
-When the problem arises, you can often fix it by identifying the two
-parser states that are being confused, and adding something to make them
-look distinct. In the above example, adding one rule to
+For many practical grammars (specifically those that fall into the
+non-@acronym{LR}(1) class), the limitations of @acronym{LALR}(1) result in
+difficulties beyond just mysterious reduce/reduce conflicts.
+The best way to fix all these problems is to select a different parser
+table generation algorithm.
+Either @acronym{IELR}(1) or canonical @acronym{LR}(1) would suffice, but
+the former is more efficient and easier to debug during development.
+@xref{Decl Summary,,lr.type}, for details.
+(Bison's @acronym{IELR}(1) and canonical @acronym{LR}(1) implementations
+are experimental.
+More user feedback will help to stabilize them.)
+
+If you instead wish to work around @acronym{LALR}(1)'s limitations, you
+can often fix a mysterious conflict by identifying the two parser states
+that are being confused, and adding something to make them look
+distinct. In the above example, adding one rule to
@code{return_spec} as follows makes the problem go away:
@example
lookahead, since the parser lacks the information necessary to make a
decision at the point it must be made in a shift-reduce parser.
Finally, as previously mentioned (@pxref{Mystery Conflicts}),
-there are languages where Bison's particular choice of how to
+there are languages where Bison's default choice of how to
summarize the input seen so far loses necessary information.
When you use the @samp{%glr-parser} declaration in your grammar file,
stream.
Whenever the parser makes a transition from having multiple
-states to having one, it reverts to the normal @acronym{LALR}(1) parsing
+states to having one, it reverts to the normal deterministic parsing
algorithm, after resolving and executing the saved-up actions.
At this transition, some of the states on the stack will have semantic
values that are sets (actually multisets) of possible actions. The
the result. Otherwise, it reports an ambiguity.
It is possible to use a data structure for the @acronym{GLR} parsing tree that
-permits the processing of any @acronym{LALR}(1) grammar in linear time (in the
+permits the processing of any @acronym{LR}(1) grammar in linear time (in the
size of the input), any unambiguous (not necessarily
-@acronym{LALR}(1)) grammar in
+@acronym{LR}(1)) grammar in
quadratic worst-case time, and any general (possibly ambiguous)
context-free grammar in cubic worst-case time. However, Bison currently
uses a simpler data structure that requires time proportional to the
behaving examples, however, are not generally of practical interest.
Usually, nondeterminism in a grammar is local---the parser is ``in
doubt'' only for a few tokens at a time. Therefore, the current data
-structure should generally be adequate. On @acronym{LALR}(1) portions of a
-grammar, in particular, it is only slightly slower than with the default
-Bison parser.
+structure should generally be adequate. On @acronym{LR}(1) portions of a
+grammar, in particular, it is only slightly slower than with the
+deterministic @acronym{LR}(1) Bison parser.
For a more detailed exposition of @acronym{GLR} parsers, please see: Elizabeth
Scott, Adrian Johnstone and Shamsa Sadaf Hussain, Tomita-Style
@vindex YYINITDEPTH
You can control how much stack is allocated initially by defining the
-macro @code{YYINITDEPTH} to a positive integer. For the C
-@acronym{LALR}(1) parser, this value must be a compile-time constant
+macro @code{YYINITDEPTH} to a positive integer. For the deterministic
+parser in C, this value must be a compile-time constant
unless you are assuming C99 or some other target language or compiler
that allows variable-length arrays. The default is 200.
Do not allow @code{YYINITDEPTH} to be greater than @code{YYMAXDEPTH}.
@c FIXME: C++ output.
-Because of semantical differences between C and C++, the
-@acronym{LALR}(1) parsers in C produced by Bison cannot grow when compiled
+Because of semantic differences between C and C++, the deterministic
+parsers in C produced by Bison cannot grow when compiled
by C++ compilers. In this precise case (compiling a C parser as C++) you are
suggested to grow @code{YYINITDEPTH}. The Bison maintainers hope to fix
this deficiency in a future release.
@command{bison} reports:
@example
-calc.y: warning: 1 nonterminal and 1 rule useless in grammar
+calc.y: warning: 1 nonterminal useless in grammar
+calc.y: warning: 1 rule useless in grammar
calc.y:11.1-7: warning: nonterminal useless in grammar: useless
calc.y:11.10-12: warning: rule useless in grammar: useless: STR
calc.y: conflicts: 7 shift/reduce
'+' . exp}. Since there is no default action, any other token than
those listed above will trigger a syntax error.
+@cindex accepting state
The state 3 is named the @dfn{final state}, or the @dfn{accepting
state}:
NUM)}, which corresponds to shifting @samp{/}, or as @samp{(NUM + NUM) /
NUM}, which corresponds to reducing rule 1.
-Because in @acronym{LALR}(1) parsing a single decision can be made, Bison
+Because in deterministic parsing a single decision can be made, Bison
arbitrarily chose to disable the reduction, see @ref{Shift/Reduce, ,
Shift/Reduce Conflicts}. Discarded actions are reported in between
square brackets.
@item the directive @samp{%debug}
@findex %debug
-Add the @code{%debug} directive (@pxref{Decl Summary, ,Bison
-Declaration Summary}). This is a Bison extension, which will prove
-useful when Bison will output parsers for languages that don't use a
-preprocessor. Unless @acronym{POSIX} and Yacc portability matter to
-you, this is
-the preferred solution.
+Add the @code{%debug} directive (@pxref{Decl Summary, ,Bison Declaration
+Summary}). This Bison extension is maintained for backward
+compatibility with previous versions of Bison.
+
+@item the variable @samp{parse.trace}
+@findex %define parse.trace
+Add the @samp{%define parse.trace} directive (@pxref{Decl Summary,
+,Bison Declaration Summary}), or pass the @option{-Dparse.trace} option
+(@pxref{Bison Options}). This is a Bison extension, which is especially
+useful for languages that don't use a preprocessor. Unless
+@acronym{POSIX} and Yacc portability matter to you, this is the
+preferred solution.
@end table
-We suggest that you always enable the debug option so that debugging is
+We suggest that you always enable the trace option so that debugging is
always possible.
The trace facility outputs messages with macro calls of the form
file name conventions, so that the parser output file is called
@file{y.tab.c}, and the other outputs are called @file{y.output} and
@file{y.tab.h}.
-Also, if generating an @acronym{LALR}(1) parser in C, generate @code{#define}
+Also, if generating a deterministic parser in C, generate @code{#define}
statements in addition to an @code{enum} to associate token numbers with token
names.
Thus, the following shell script can substitute for Yacc, and the Bison
like @samp{%glr-parser}, Bison might not be Yacc-compatible even if
this option is specified.
-@item -W
-@itemx --warnings
+@item -W [@var{category}]
+@itemx --warnings[=@var{category}]
Output warnings falling in @var{category}. @var{category} can be one
of:
@table @code
@item -D @var{name}[=@var{value}]
@itemx --define=@var{name}[=@var{value}]
-Same as running @samp{%define @var{name} "@var{value}"} (@pxref{Decl
-Summary, ,%define}).
+@itemx -F @var{name}[=@var{value}]
+@itemx --force-define=@var{name}[=@var{value}]
+Each of these is equivalent to @samp{%define @var{name} "@var{value}"}
+(@pxref{Decl Summary, ,%define}) except that Bison processes multiple
+definitions for the same @var{name} as follows:
+
+@itemize
+@item
+Bison quietly ignores all command-line definitions for @var{name} except
+the last.
+@item
+If that command-line definition is specified by a @code{-D} or
+@code{--define}, Bison reports an error for any @code{%define}
+definition for @var{name}.
+@item
+If that command-line definition is specified by a @code{-F} or
+@code{--force-define} instead, Bison quietly ignores all @code{%define}
+definitions for @var{name}.
+@item
+Otherwise, Bison reports an error if there are multiple @code{%define}
+definitions for @var{name}.
+@end itemize
+
+You should avoid using @code{-F} and @code{--force-define} in your
+makefiles unless you are confident that it is safe to quietly ignore any
+conflicting @code{%define} that may be added to the grammar file.
@item -L @var{language}
@itemx --language=@var{language}
@table @code
@item state
Description of the grammar, conflicts (resolved and unresolved), and
-@acronym{LALR} automaton.
+parser's automaton.
@item lookahead
Implies @code{state} and augments the description of the automaton with
@item -g [@var{file}]
@itemx --graph[=@var{file}]
-Output a graphical representation of the @acronym{LALR}(1) grammar
+Output a graphical representation of the parser's
automaton computed by Bison, in @uref{http://www.graphviz.org/, Graphviz}
@uref{http://www.graphviz.org/doc/info/lang.html, @acronym{DOT}} format.
@code{@var{file}} is optional.
@item -x [@var{file}]
@itemx --xml[=@var{file}]
-Output an XML report of the @acronym{LALR}(1) automaton computed by Bison.
+Output an XML report of the parser's automaton computed by Bison.
@code{@var{file}} is optional.
If omitted and the grammar file is @file{foo.y}, the output file will be
@file{foo.xml}.
@section Option Cross Key
Here is a list of options, alphabetized by long option, to help you find
-the corresponding short option.
+the corresponding short option and directive.
-@multitable {@option{--defines=@var{defines-file}}} {@option{-D @var{name}[=@var{value}]}} {@code{%nondeterministic-parser}}
+@multitable {@option{--force-define=@var{name}[=@var{value}]}} {@option{-F @var{name}[=@var{value}]}} {@code{%nondeterministic-parser}}
@headitem Long Option @tab Short Option @tab Bison Directive
@include cross-options.texi
@end multitable
@c - Always pure
@c - initial action
-The C++ @acronym{LALR}(1) parser is selected using the skeleton directive,
-@samp{%skeleton "lalr1.c"}, or the synonymous command-line option
-@option{--skeleton=lalr1.c}.
+The C++ deterministic parser is selected using the skeleton directive,
+@samp{%skeleton "lalr1.cc"}, or the synonymous command-line option
+@option{--skeleton=lalr1.cc}.
@xref{Decl Summary}.
When run, @command{bison} will create several entities in the @samp{yy}
namespace.
-@findex %define namespace
-Use the @samp{%define namespace} directive to change the namespace name, see
+@findex %define api.namespace
+Use the @samp{%define api.namespace} directive to change the namespace
+name, see
@ref{Decl Summary}.
The various classes are generated in the following files:
@item position.hh
@itemx location.hh
The definition of the classes @code{position} and @code{location},
-used for location tracking. @xref{C++ Location Values}.
+used for location tracking when enabled. @xref{C++ Location Values}.
@item stack.hh
An auxiliary class @code{stack} used by the parser.
@c - YYSTYPE
@c - Printer and destructor
+Bison supports two different means to handle semantic values in C++. One is
+alike the C interface, and relies on unions (@pxref{C++ Unions}). As C++
+practitioners know, unions are inconvenient in C++, therefore another
+approach is provided, based on variants (@pxref{C++ Variants}).
+
+@menu
+* C++ Unions:: Semantic values cannot be objects
+* C++ Variants:: Using objects as semantic values
+@end menu
+
+@node C++ Unions
+@subsubsection C++ Unions
+
The @code{%union} directive works as for C, see @ref{Union Decl, ,The
Collection of Value Types}. In particular it produces a genuine
-@code{union}@footnote{In the future techniques to allow complex types
-within pseudo-unions (similar to Boost variants) might be implemented to
-alleviate these issues.}, which have a few specific features in C++.
+@code{union}, which have a few specific features in C++.
@itemize @minus
@item
The type @code{YYSTYPE} is defined but its use is discouraged: rather
only means to avoid leaks. @xref{Destructor Decl, , Freeing Discarded
Symbols}.
+@node C++ Variants
+@subsubsection C++ Variants
+
+Starting with version 2.6, Bison provides a @emph{variant} based
+implementation of semantic values for C++. This alleviates all the
+limitations reported in the previous section, and in particular, object
+types can be used without pointers.
+
+To enable variant-based semantic values, set @code{%define} variable
+@code{variant} (@pxref{Decl Summary, , variant}). Once this defined,
+@code{%union} is ignored, and instead of using the name of the fields of the
+@code{%union} to ``type'' the symbols, use genuine types.
+
+For instance, instead of
+
+@example
+%union
+@{
+ int ival;
+ std::string* sval;
+@}
+%token <ival> NUMBER;
+%token <sval> STRING;
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+write
+
+@example
+%token <int> NUMBER;
+%token <std::string> STRING;
+@end example
+
+@code{STRING} is no longer a pointer, which should fairly simplify the user
+actions in the grammar and in the scanner (in particular the memory
+management).
+
+Since C++ features destructors, and since it is customary to specialize
+@code{operator<<} to support uniform printing of values, variants also
+typically simplify Bison printers and destructors.
+
+Variants are stricter than unions. When based on unions, you may play any
+dirty game with @code{yylval}, say storing an @code{int}, reading a
+@code{char*}, and then storing a @code{double} in it. This is no longer
+possible with variants: they must be initialized, then assigned to, and
+eventually, destroyed.
+
+@deftypemethod {semantic_type} {T&} build<T> ()
+Initialize, but leave empty. Returns the address where the actual value may
+be stored. Requires that the variant was not initialized yet.
+@end deftypemethod
+
+@deftypemethod {semantic_type} {T&} build<T> (const T& @var{t})
+Initialize, and copy-construct from @var{t}.
+@end deftypemethod
+
+
+@strong{Warning}: We do not use Boost.Variant, for two reasons. First, it
+appeared unacceptable to require Boost on the user's machine (i.e., the
+machine on which the generated parser will be compiled, not the machine on
+which @command{bison} was run). Second, for each possible semantic value,
+Boost.Variant not only stores the value, but also a tag specifying its
+type. But the parser already ``knows'' the type of the semantic value, so
+that would be duplicating the information.
+
+Therefore we developed light-weight variants whose type tag is external (so
+they are really like @code{unions} for C++ actually). But our code is much
+less mature that Boost.Variant. So there is a number of limitations in
+(the current implementation of) variants:
+@itemize
+@item
+Alignment must be enforced: values should be aligned in memory according to
+the most demanding type. Computing the smallest alignment possible requires
+meta-programming techniques that are not currently implemented in Bison, and
+therefore, since, as far as we know, @code{double} is the most demanding
+type on all platforms, alignments are enforced for @code{double} whatever
+types are actually used. This may waste space in some cases.
+
+@item
+Our implementation is not conforming with strict aliasing rules. Alias
+analysis is a technique used in optimizing compilers to detect when two
+pointers are disjoint (they cannot ``meet''). Our implementation breaks
+some of the rules that G++ 4.4 uses in its alias analysis, so @emph{strict
+alias analysis must be disabled}. Use the option
+@option{-fno-strict-aliasing} to compile the generated parser.
+
+@item
+There might be portability issues we are not aware of.
+@end itemize
+
+As far as we know, these limitations @emph{can} be alleviated. All it takes
+is some time and/or some talented C++ hacker willing to contribute to Bison.
@node C++ Location Values
@subsection C++ Location Values
it describes an additional member of the parser class, and an
additional argument for its constructor.
-@defcv {Type} {parser} {semantic_value_type}
-@defcvx {Type} {parser} {location_value_type}
-The types for semantics value and locations.
+@defcv {Type} {parser} {semantic_type}
+@defcvx {Type} {parser} {location_type}
+The types for semantic values and locations (if enabled).
+@end defcv
+
+@defcv {Type} {parser} {token}
+A structure that contains (only) the definition of the tokens as the
+@code{yytokentype} enumeration. To refer to the token @code{FOO}, the
+scanner should use @code{yy::parser::token::FOO}. The scanner can use
+@samp{typedef yy::parser::token token;} to ``import'' the token enumeration
+(@pxref{Calc++ Scanner}).
+@end defcv
+
+@defcv {Type} {parser} {syntax_error}
+This class derives from @code{std::runtime_error}. Throw instances of it
+from user actions to raise parse errors. This is equivalent with first
+invoking @code{error} to report the location and message of the syntax
+error, and then to invoke @code{YYERROR} to enter the error-recovery mode.
+But contrary to @code{YYERROR} which can only be invoked from user actions
+(i.e., written in the action itself), the exception can be thrown from
+function invoked from the user action.
@end defcv
@deftypemethod {parser} {} parser (@var{type1} @var{arg1}, ...)
@samp{%parse-param @{@var{type1} @var{arg1}@}} was used.
@end deftypemethod
+@deftypemethod {syntax_error} {} syntax_error (const location_type& @var{l}, const std::string& @var{m})
+@deftypemethodx {syntax_error} {} syntax_error (const std::string& @var{m})
+Instantiate a syntax-error exception.
+@end deftypemethod
+
@deftypemethod {parser} {int} parse ()
Run the syntactic analysis, and return 0 on success, 1 otherwise.
@end deftypemethod
@end deftypemethod
@deftypemethod {parser} {void} error (const location_type& @var{l}, const std::string& @var{m})
+@deftypemethodx {parser} {void} error (const std::string& @var{m})
The definition for this member function must be supplied by the user:
the parser uses it to report a parser error occurring at @var{l},
-described by @var{m}.
+described by @var{m}. If location tracking is not enabled, the second
+signature is used.
@end deftypemethod
The parser invokes the scanner by calling @code{yylex}. Contrary to C
parsers, C++ parsers are always pure: there is no point in using the
-@code{%define api.pure} directive. Therefore the interface is as follows.
+@samp{%define api.pure} directive. The actual interface with @code{yylex}
+depends whether you use unions, or variants.
-@deftypemethod {parser} {int} yylex (semantic_value_type& @var{yylval}, location_type& @var{yylloc}, @var{type1} @var{arg1}, ...)
-Return the next token. Its type is the return value, its semantic
-value and location being @var{yylval} and @var{yylloc}. Invocations of
+@menu
+* Split Symbols:: Passing symbols as two/three components
+* Complete Symbols:: Making symbols a whole
+@end menu
+
+@node Split Symbols
+@subsubsection Split Symbols
+
+Therefore the interface is as follows.
+
+@deftypemethod {parser} {int} yylex (semantic_type* @var{yylval}, location_type* @var{yylloc}, @var{type1} @var{arg1}, ...)
+@deftypemethodx {parser} {int} yylex (semantic_type* @var{yylval}, @var{type1} @var{arg1}, ...)
+Return the next token. Its type is the return value, its semantic value and
+location (if enabled) being @var{yylval} and @var{yylloc}. Invocations of
@samp{%lex-param @{@var{type1} @var{arg1}@}} yield additional arguments.
@end deftypemethod
+Note that when using variants, the interface for @code{yylex} is the same,
+but @code{yylval} is handled differently.
+
+Regular union-based code in Lex scanner typically look like:
+
+@example
+[0-9]+ @{
+ yylval.ival = text_to_int (yytext);
+ return yy::parser::INTEGER;
+ @}
+[a-z]+ @{
+ yylval.sval = new std::string (yytext);
+ return yy::parser::IDENTIFIER;
+ @}
+@end example
+
+Using variants, @code{yylval} is already constructed, but it is not
+initialized. So the code would look like:
+
+@example
+[0-9]+ @{
+ yylval.build<int>() = text_to_int (yytext);
+ return yy::parser::INTEGER;
+ @}
+[a-z]+ @{
+ yylval.build<std::string> = yytext;
+ return yy::parser::IDENTIFIER;
+ @}
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+or
+
+@example
+[0-9]+ @{
+ yylval.build(text_to_int (yytext));
+ return yy::parser::INTEGER;
+ @}
+[a-z]+ @{
+ yylval.build(yytext);
+ return yy::parser::IDENTIFIER;
+ @}
+@end example
+
+
+@node Complete Symbols
+@subsubsection Complete Symbols
+
+If you specified both @code{%define variant} and @code{%define lex_symbol},
+the @code{parser} class also defines the class @code{parser::symbol_type}
+which defines a @emph{complete} symbol, aggregating its type (i.e., the
+traditional value returned by @code{yylex}), its semantic value (i.e., the
+value passed in @code{yylval}, and possibly its location (@code{yylloc}).
+
+@deftypemethod {symbol_type} {} symbol_type (token_type @var{type}, const semantic_type& @var{value}, const location_type& @var{location})
+Build a complete terminal symbol which token type is @var{type}, and which
+semantic value is @var{value}. If location tracking is enabled, also pass
+the @var{location}.
+@end deftypemethod
+
+This interface is low-level and should not be used for two reasons. First,
+it is inconvenient, as you still have to build the semantic value, which is
+a variant, and second, because consistency is not enforced: as with unions,
+it is still possible to give an integer as semantic value for a string.
+
+So for each token type, Bison generates named constructors as follows.
+
+@deftypemethod {symbol_type} {} make_@var{token} (const @var{value_type}& @var{value}, const location_type& @var{location})
+@deftypemethodx {symbol_type} {} make_@var{token} (const location_type& @var{location})
+Build a complete terminal symbol for the token type @var{token} (not
+including the @code{api.tokens.prefix}) whose possible semantic value is
+@var{value} of adequate @var{value_type}. If location tracking is enabled,
+also pass the @var{location}.
+@end deftypemethod
+
+For instance, given the following declarations:
+
+@example
+%define api.tokens.prefix "TOK_"
+%token <std::string> IDENTIFIER;
+%token <int> INTEGER;
+%token COLON;
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+Bison generates the following functions:
+
+@example
+symbol_type make_IDENTIFIER(const std::string& v,
+ const location_type& l);
+symbol_type make_INTEGER(const int& v,
+ const location_type& loc);
+symbol_type make_COLON(const location_type& loc);
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+which should be used in a Lex-scanner as follows.
+
+@example
+[0-9]+ return yy::parser::make_INTEGER(text_to_int (yytext), loc);
+[a-z]+ return yy::parser::make_IDENTIFIER(yytext, loc);
+":" return yy::parser::make_COLON(loc);
+@end example
+
+Tokens that do not have an identifier are not accessible: you cannot simply
+use characters such as @code{':'}, they must be declared with @code{%token}.
@node A Complete C++ Example
@subsection A Complete C++ Example
This section demonstrates the use of a C++ parser with a simple but
complete example. This example should be available on your system,
-ready to compile, in the directory @dfn{../bison/examples/calc++}. It
+ready to compile, in the directory @dfn{.../bison/examples/calc++}. It
focuses on the use of Bison, therefore the design of the various C++
classes is very naive: no accessors, no encapsulation of members etc.
We will use a Lex scanner, and more precisely, a Flex scanner, to
-demonstrate the various interaction. A hand written scanner is
+demonstrate the various interactions. A hand-written scanner is
actually easier to interface with.
@menu
@comment file: calc++-driver.hh
@example
// Tell Flex the lexer's prototype ...
-# define YY_DECL \
- yy::calcxx_parser::token_type \
- yylex (yy::calcxx_parser::semantic_type* yylval, \
- yy::calcxx_parser::location_type* yylloc, \
- calcxx_driver& driver)
+# define YY_DECL \
+ yy::calcxx_parser::symbol_type yylex (calcxx_driver& driver)
// ... and declare it for the parser's sake.
YY_DECL;
@end example
@end example
@noindent
-To encapsulate the coordination with the Flex scanner, it is useful to
-have two members function to open and close the scanning phase.
+To encapsulate the coordination with the Flex scanner, it is useful to have
+member functions to open and close the scanning phase.
@comment file: calc++-driver.hh
@example
@comment file: calc++-driver.hh
@example
- // Run the parser. Return 0 on success.
+ // Run the parser on file F.
+ // Return 0 on success.
int parse (const std::string& f);
+ // The name of the file being parsed.
+ // Used later to pass the file name to the location tracker.
std::string file;
+ // Whether parser traces should be generated.
bool trace_parsing;
@end example
@subsubsection Calc++ Parser
The parser definition file @file{calc++-parser.yy} starts by asking for
-the C++ LALR(1) skeleton, the creation of the parser header file, and
-specifies the name of the parser class. Because the C++ skeleton
-changed several times, it is safer to require the version you designed
-the grammar for.
+the C++ deterministic parser skeleton, the creation of the parser header
+file, and specifies the name of the parser class.
+Because the C++ skeleton changed several times, it is safer to require
+the version you designed the grammar for.
@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
@example
%define parser_class_name "calcxx_parser"
@end example
+@noindent
+@findex %define variant
+@findex %define lex_symbol
+This example will use genuine C++ objects as semantic values, therefore, we
+require the variant-based interface. To make sure we properly use it, we
+enable assertions. To fully benefit from type-safety and more natural
+definition of ``symbol'', we enable @code{lex_symbol}.
+
+@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
+@example
+%define variant
+%define parse.assert
+%define lex_symbol
+@end example
+
@noindent
@findex %code requires
-Then come the declarations/inclusions needed to define the
-@code{%union}. Because the parser uses the parsing driver and
-reciprocally, both cannot include the header of the other. Because the
+Then come the declarations/inclusions needed by the semantic values.
+Because the parser uses the parsing driver and reciprocally, both would like
+to include the header of the other, which is, of course, insane. This
+mutual dependency will be broken using forward declarations. Because the
driver's header needs detailed knowledge about the parser class (in
-particular its inner types), it is the parser's header which will simply
-use a forward declaration of the driver.
-@xref{Decl Summary, ,%code}.
+particular its inner types), it is the parser's header which will use a
+forward declaration of the driver. @xref{Decl Summary, ,%code}.
@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
@example
-%code requires @{
+%code requires
+@{
# include <string>
class calcxx_driver;
@}
@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
@example
// The parsing context.
-%parse-param @{ calcxx_driver& driver @}
-%lex-param @{ calcxx_driver& driver @}
+%param @{ calcxx_driver& driver @}
@end example
@noindent
-Then we request the location tracking feature, and initialize the
-first location's file name. Afterwards new locations are computed
+Then we request location tracking, and initialize the
+first location's file name. Afterward new locations are computed
relatively to the previous locations: the file name will be
-automatically propagated.
+propagated.
@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
@example
@end example
@noindent
-Use the two following directives to enable parser tracing and verbose
+Use the following two directives to enable parser tracing and verbose
error messages.
@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
@example
-%debug
-%error-verbose
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-Semantic values cannot use ``real'' objects, but only pointers to
-them.
-
-@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
-@example
-// Symbols.
-%union
-@{
- int ival;
- std::string *sval;
-@};
+%define parse.trace
+%define parse.error verbose
@end example
@noindent
@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
@example
-%code @{
+%code
+@{
# include "calc++-driver.hh"
@}
@end example
@noindent
The token numbered as 0 corresponds to end of file; the following line
-allows for nicer error messages referring to ``end of file'' instead
-of ``$end''. Similarly user friendly named are provided for each
-symbol. Note that the tokens names are prefixed by @code{TOKEN_} to
-avoid name clashes.
+allows for nicer error messages referring to ``end of file'' instead of
+``$end''. Similarly user friendly names are provided for each symbol.
+To avoid name clashes in the generated files (@pxref{Calc++ Scanner}),
+prefix tokens with @code{TOK_} (@pxref{Decl Summary,, api.tokens.prefix}).
@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
@example
-%token END 0 "end of file"
-%token ASSIGN ":="
-%token <sval> IDENTIFIER "identifier"
-%token <ival> NUMBER "number"
-%type <ival> exp
+%define api.tokens.prefix "TOK_"
+%token
+ END 0 "end of file"
+ ASSIGN ":="
+ MINUS "-"
+ PLUS "+"
+ STAR "*"
+ SLASH "/"
+ LPAREN "("
+ RPAREN ")"
+;
@end example
@noindent
-To enable memory deallocation during error recovery, use
-@code{%destructor}.
+Since we use variant-based semantic values, @code{%union} is not used, and
+both @code{%type} and @code{%token} expect genuine types, as opposed to type
+tags.
-@c FIXME: Document %printer, and mention that it takes a braced-code operand.
@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
@example
-%printer @{ debug_stream () << *$$; @} "identifier"
-%destructor @{ delete $$; @} "identifier"
+%token <std::string> IDENTIFIER "identifier"
+%token <int> NUMBER "number"
+%type <int> exp
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+No @code{%destructor} is needed to enable memory deallocation during error
+recovery; the memory, for strings for instance, will be reclaimed by the
+regular destructors. All the values are printed using their
+@code{operator<<}.
-%printer @{ debug_stream () << $$; @} <ival>
+@c FIXME: Document %printer, and mention that it takes a braced-code operand.
+@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
+@example
+%printer @{ debug_stream () << $$; @} <*>;
@end example
@noindent
-The grammar itself is straightforward.
+The grammar itself is straightforward (@pxref{Location Tracking Calc, ,
+Location Tracking Calculator: @code{ltcalc}}).
@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
@example
%start unit;
unit: assignments exp @{ driver.result = $2; @};
-assignments: assignments assignment @{@}
- | /* Nothing. */ @{@};
+assignments:
+ assignments assignment @{@}
+| /* Nothing. */ @{@};
assignment:
- "identifier" ":=" exp
- @{ driver.variables[*$1] = $3; delete $1; @};
-
-%left '+' '-';
-%left '*' '/';
-exp: exp '+' exp @{ $$ = $1 + $3; @}
- | exp '-' exp @{ $$ = $1 - $3; @}
- | exp '*' exp @{ $$ = $1 * $3; @}
- | exp '/' exp @{ $$ = $1 / $3; @}
- | '(' exp ')' @{ $$ = $2; @}
- | "identifier" @{ $$ = driver.variables[*$1]; delete $1; @}
- | "number" @{ $$ = $1; @};
+ "identifier" ":=" exp @{ driver.variables[$1] = $3; @};
+
+%left "+" "-";
+%left "*" "/";
+exp:
+ exp "+" exp @{ $$ = $1 + $3; @}
+| exp "-" exp @{ $$ = $1 - $3; @}
+| exp "*" exp @{ $$ = $1 * $3; @}
+| exp "/" exp @{ $$ = $1 / $3; @}
+| "(" exp ")" @{ std::swap ($$, $2); @}
+| "identifier" @{ $$ = driver.variables[$1]; @}
+| "number" @{ std::swap ($$, $1); @};
%%
@end example
@comment file: calc++-parser.yy
@example
void
-yy::calcxx_parser::error (const yy::calcxx_parser::location_type& l,
+yy::calcxx_parser::error (const location_type& l,
const std::string& m)
@{
driver.error (l, m);
@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll
@example
%@{ /* -*- C++ -*- */
+# include <cerrno>
+# include <climits>
# include <cstdlib>
-# include <errno.h>
-# include <limits.h>
# include <string>
# include "calc++-driver.hh"
# include "calc++-parser.hh"
-/* Work around an incompatibility in flex (at least versions
- 2.5.31 through 2.5.33): it generates code that does
- not conform to C89. See Debian bug 333231
- <http://bugs.debian.org/cgi-bin/bugreport.cgi?bug=333231>. */
+// Work around an incompatibility in flex (at least versions
+// 2.5.31 through 2.5.33): it generates code that does
+// not conform to C89. See Debian bug 333231
+// <http://bugs.debian.org/cgi-bin/bugreport.cgi?bug=333231>.
# undef yywrap
# define yywrap() 1
-/* By default yylex returns int, we use token_type.
- Unfortunately yyterminate by default returns 0, which is
- not of token_type. */
-#define yyterminate() return token::END
+// The location of the current token.
+static yy::location loc;
%@}
@end example
Because there is no @code{#include}-like feature we don't need
@code{yywrap}, we don't need @code{unput} either, and we parse an
actual file, this is not an interactive session with the user.
-Finally we enable the scanner tracing features.
+Finally, we enable scanner tracing.
@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll
@example
@noindent
The following paragraph suffices to track locations accurately. Each
time @code{yylex} is invoked, the begin position is moved onto the end
-position. Then when a pattern is matched, the end position is
-advanced of its width. In case it matched ends of lines, the end
+position. Then when a pattern is matched, its width is added to the end
+column. When matching ends of lines, the end
cursor is adjusted, and each time blanks are matched, the begin cursor
is moved onto the end cursor to effectively ignore the blanks
preceding tokens. Comments would be treated equally.
@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll
@example
%@{
-# define YY_USER_ACTION yylloc->columns (yyleng);
+ // Code run each time a pattern is matched.
+ # define YY_USER_ACTION loc.columns (yyleng);
%@}
%%
%@{
- yylloc->step ();
+ // Code run each time yylex is called.
+ loc.step ();
%@}
-@{blank@}+ yylloc->step ();
-[\n]+ yylloc->lines (yyleng); yylloc->step ();
+@{blank@}+ loc.step ();
+[\n]+ loc.lines (yyleng); loc.step ();
@end example
@noindent
-The rules are simple, just note the use of the driver to report errors.
-It is convenient to use a typedef to shorten
-@code{yy::calcxx_parser::token::identifier} into
-@code{token::identifier} for instance.
+The rules are simple. The driver is used to report errors.
@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll
@example
-%@{
- typedef yy::calcxx_parser::token token;
-%@}
- /* Convert ints to the actual type of tokens. */
-[-+*/()] return yy::calcxx_parser::token_type (yytext[0]);
-":=" return token::ASSIGN;
+"-" return yy::calcxx_parser::make_MINUS(loc);
+"+" return yy::calcxx_parser::make_PLUS(loc);
+"*" return yy::calcxx_parser::make_STAR(loc);
+"/" return yy::calcxx_parser::make_SLASH(loc);
+"(" return yy::calcxx_parser::make_LPAREN(loc);
+")" return yy::calcxx_parser::make_RPAREN(loc);
+":=" return yy::calcxx_parser::make_ASSIGN(loc);
+
@{int@} @{
errno = 0;
long n = strtol (yytext, NULL, 10);
if (! (INT_MIN <= n && n <= INT_MAX && errno != ERANGE))
- driver.error (*yylloc, "integer is out of range");
- yylval->ival = n;
- return token::NUMBER;
+ driver.error (loc, "integer is out of range");
+ return yy::calcxx_parser::make_NUMBER(n, loc);
@}
-@{id@} yylval->sval = new std::string (yytext); return token::IDENTIFIER;
-. driver.error (*yylloc, "invalid character");
+@{id@} return yy::calcxx_parser::make_IDENTIFIER(yytext, loc);
+. driver.error (loc, "invalid character");
+<<EOF>> return yy::calcxx_parser::make_END(loc);
%%
@end example
@noindent
-Finally, because the scanner related driver's member function depend
+Finally, because the scanner-related driver's member-functions depend
on the scanner's data, it is simpler to implement them in this file.
@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll
yyin = stdin;
else if (!(yyin = fopen (file.c_str (), "r")))
@{
- error (std::string ("cannot open ") + file);
+ error (std::string ("cannot open ") + file + ": " + strerror(errno));
exit (1);
@}
@}
Contrary to C parsers, Java parsers do not use global variables; the
state of the parser is always local to an instance of the parser class.
Therefore, all Java parsers are ``pure'', and the @code{%pure-parser}
-and @code{%define api.pure} directives does not do anything when used in
+and @samp{%define api.pure} directives does not do anything when used in
Java.
Push parsers are currently unsupported in Java and @code{%define
-api.push_pull} have no effect.
+api.push-pull} have no effect.
@acronym{GLR} parsers are currently unsupported in Java. Do not use the
@code{glr-parser} directive.
@code{%defines} directive or the @option{-d}/@option{--defines} options.
@c FIXME: Possible code change.
-Currently, support for debugging is always compiled
-in. Thus the @code{%debug} and @code{%token-table} directives and the
+Currently, support for tracing is always compiled
+in. Thus the @samp{%define parse.trace} and @samp{%token-table}
+directives and the
@option{-t}/@option{--debug} and @option{-k}/@option{--token-table}
options have no effect. This may change in the future to eliminate
-unused code in the generated parser, so use @code{%debug} explicitly
+unused code in the generated parser, so use @samp{%define parse.trace}
+explicitly
if needed. Also, in the future the
@code{%token-table} directive might enable a public interface to
access the token names and codes.
Getting a ``code too large'' error from the Java compiler means the code
-hit the 64KB bytecode per method limination of the Java class file.
+hit the 64KB bytecode per method limitation of the Java class file.
Try reducing the amount of code in actions and static initializers;
otherwise, report a bug so that the parser skeleton will be improved.
By default, the semantic stack is declared to have @code{Object} members,
which means that the class types you specify can be of any class.
To improve the type safety of the parser, you can declare the common
-superclass of all the semantic values using the @code{%define stype}
+superclass of all the semantic values using the @samp{%define stype}
directive. For example, after the following declaration:
@example
a range composed of a pair of positions (possibly spanning several
files). The location class is an inner class of the parser; the name
is @code{Location} by default, and may also be renamed using
-@code{%define location_type "@var{class-name}}.
+@samp{%define location_type "@var{class-name}"}.
The location class treats the position as a completely opaque value.
By default, the class name is @code{Position}, but this can be changed
-with @code{%define position_type "@var{class-name}"}. This class must
+with @samp{%define position_type "@var{class-name}"}. This class must
be supplied by the user.
@end deftypeivar
@deftypeop {Constructor} {Location} {} Location (Position @var{loc})
-Create a @code{Location} denoting an empty range located at a given point.
+Create a @code{Location} denoting an empty range located at a given point.
@end deftypeop
@deftypeop {Constructor} {Location} {} Location (Position @var{begin}, Position @var{end})
The name of the generated parser class defaults to @code{YYParser}. The
@code{YY} prefix may be changed using the @code{%name-prefix} directive
or the @option{-p}/@option{--name-prefix} option. Alternatively, use
-@code{%define parser_class_name "@var{name}"} to give a custom name to
+@samp{%define parser_class_name "@var{name}"} to give a custom name to
the class. The interface of this class is detailed below.
By default, the parser class has package visibility. A declaration
-@code{%define public} will change to public visibility. Remember that,
+@samp{%define public} will change to public visibility. Remember that,
according to the Java language specification, the name of the @file{.java}
file should match the name of the class in this case. Similarly, you can
use @code{abstract}, @code{final} and @code{strictfp} with the
@code{%define} declaration to add other modifiers to the parser class.
-A single @code{%define annotations "@var{annotations}"} directive can
+A single @samp{%define annotations "@var{annotations}"} directive can
be used to add any number of annotations to the parser class.
The Java package name of the parser class can be specified using the
-@code{%define package} directive. The superclass and the implemented
+@samp{%define package} directive. The superclass and the implemented
interfaces of the parser class can be specified with the @code{%define
-extends} and @code{%define implements} directives.
+extends} and @samp{%define implements} directives.
The parser class defines an inner class, @code{Location}, that is used
for location tracking (see @ref{Java Location Values}), and a inner
@deftypeop {Constructor} {YYParser} {} YYParser (@var{lex_param}, @dots{}, @var{parse_param}, @dots{})
Build a new parser object with embedded @code{%code lexer}. There are
-no parameters, unless @code{%parse-param}s and/or @code{%lex-param}s are
-used.
+no parameters, unless @code{%param}s and/or @code{%parse-param}s and/or
+@code{%lex-param}s are used.
Use @code{%code init} for code added to the start of the constructor
body. This is especially useful to initialize superclasses. Use
-@code{%define init_throws} to specify any uncatch exceptions.
+@samp{%define init_throws} to specify any uncaught exceptions.
@end deftypeop
@deftypeop {Constructor} {YYParser} {} YYParser (Lexer @var{lexer}, @var{parse_param}, @dots{})
Build a new parser object using the specified scanner. There are no
-additional parameters unless @code{%parse-param}s are used.
+additional parameters unless @code{%param}s and/or @code{%parse-param}s are
+used.
If the scanner is defined by @code{%code lexer}, this constructor is
declared @code{protected} and is called automatically with a scanner
-created with the correct @code{%lex-param}s.
+created with the correct @code{%param}s and/or @code{%lex-param}s.
Use @code{%code init} for code added to the start of the constructor
body. This is especially useful to initialize superclasses. Use
-@code{%define init_throws} to specify any uncatch exceptions.
+@samp{%define init_throws} to specify any uncatch exceptions.
@end deftypeop
@deftypemethod {YYParser} {boolean} parse ()
@deftypemethod {YYParser} {boolean} getErrorVerbose ()
@deftypemethodx {YYParser} {void} setErrorVerbose (boolean @var{verbose})
Get or set the option to produce verbose error messages. These are only
-available with the @code{%error-verbose} directive, which also turn on
+available with @samp{%define parse.error verbose}, which also turns on
verbose error messages.
@end deftypemethod
@deftypemethod {Lexer} {void} yyerror (Location @var{loc}, String @var{msg})
This method is defined by the user to emit an error message. The first
parameter is omitted if location tracking is not active. Its type can be
-changed using @code{%define location_type "@var{class-name}".}
+changed using @samp{%define location_type "@var{class-name}".}
@end deftypemethod
@deftypemethod {Lexer} {int} yylex ()
Return the next token. Its type is the return value, its semantic
-value and location are saved and returned by the ther methods in the
+value and location are saved and returned by the their methods in the
interface.
-Use @code{%define lex_throws} to specify any uncaught exceptions.
+Use @samp{%define lex_throws} to specify any uncaught exceptions.
Default is @code{java.io.IOException}.
@end deftypemethod
@code{yylex} returned, and the first position beyond it. These
methods are not needed unless location tracking is active.
-The return type can be changed using @code{%define position_type
+The return type can be changed using @samp{%define position_type
"@var{class-name}".}
@end deftypemethod
@deftypemethod {Lexer} {Object} getLVal ()
-Return the semantical value of the last token that yylex returned.
+Return the semantic value of the last token that yylex returned.
-The return type can be changed using @code{%define stype
+The return type can be changed using @samp{%define stype
"@var{class-name}".}
@end deftypemethod
The following special constructs can be uses in Java actions.
Other analogous C action features are currently unavailable for Java.
-Use @code{%define throws} to specify any uncaught exceptions from parser
+Use @samp{%define throws} to specify any uncaught exceptions from parser
actions, and initial actions specified by @code{%initial-action}.
@defvar $@var{n}
@defvar $$
The semantic value for the grouping made by the current rule. As a
value, this is in the base type (@code{Object} or as specified by
-@code{%define stype}) as in not cast to the declared subtype because
+@samp{%define stype}) as in not cast to the declared subtype because
casts are not allowed on the left-hand side of Java assignments.
Use an explicit Java cast if the correct subtype is needed.
@xref{Java Semantic Values}.
@end deffn
@deffn {Statement} {return YYERROR;}
-Start error recovery without printing an error message.
-@xref{Error Recovery}.
-@end deffn
-
-@deffn {Statement} {return YYFAIL;}
-Print an error message and start error recovery.
+Start error recovery without printing an error message.
@xref{Error Recovery}.
@end deffn
@item
Java lacks unions, so @code{%union} has no effect. Instead, semantic
values have a common base type: @code{Object} or as specified by
-@code{%define stype}. Angle backets on @code{%token}, @code{type},
+@samp{%define stype}. Angle brackets on @code{%token}, @code{type},
@code{$@var{n}} and @code{$$} specify subtypes rather than fields of
an union. The type of @code{$$}, even with angle brackets, is the base
type since Java casts are not allow on the left-hand side of assignments.
@pxref{Java Action Features}.
@item
-The prolog declarations have a different meaning than in C/C++ code.
+The prologue declarations have a different meaning than in C/C++ code.
@table @asis
@item @code{%code imports}
blocks are placed at the beginning of the Java source code. They may
include copyright notices. For a @code{package} declarations, it is
-suggested to use @code{%define package} instead.
+suggested to use @samp{%define package} instead.
@item unqualified @code{%code}
blocks are placed inside the parser class.
@deffn {Directive} %name-prefix "@var{prefix}"
The prefix of the parser class name @code{@var{prefix}Parser} if
-@code{%define parser_class_name} is not used. Default is @code{YY}.
+@samp{%define parser_class_name} is not used. Default is @code{YY}.
@xref{Java Bison Interface}.
@end deffn
@display
My parser includes support for an @samp{#include}-like feature, in
which case I run @code{yyparse} from @code{yyparse}. This fails
-although I did specify @code{%define api.pure}.
+although I did specify @samp{%define api.pure}.
@end display
These problems typically come not from Bison itself, but from
side of the rule. @xref{Locations, , Locations Overview}.
@end deffn
+@deffn {Variable} @@@var{name}
+In an action, the location of a symbol addressed by name.
+@xref{Locations, , Locations Overview}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Variable} @@[@var{name}]
+In an action, the location of a symbol addressed by name.
+@xref{Locations, , Locations Overview}.
+@end deffn
+
@deffn {Variable} $$
In an action, the semantic value of the left-hand side of the rule.
@xref{Actions}.
right-hand side of the rule. @xref{Actions}.
@end deffn
+@deffn {Variable} $@var{name}
+In an action, the semantic value of a symbol addressed by name.
+@xref{Actions}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Variable} $[@var{name}]
+In an action, the semantic value of a symbol addressed by name.
+@xref{Actions}.
+@end deffn
+
@deffn {Delimiter} %%
Delimiter used to separate the grammar rule section from the
Bison declarations section or the epilogue.
Grammar}.
@end deffn
+@deffn {Directive} %?@{@var{expression}@}
+Predicate actions. This is a type of action clause that may appear in
+rules. The expression is evaluated, and if false, causes a syntax error. In
+@acronym{GLR} parsers during nondeterministic operation,
+this silently causes an alternative parse to die. During deterministic
+operation, it is the same as the effect of YYERROR.
+@xref{Semantic Predicates}.
+
+This feature is experimental.
+More user feedback will help to determine whether it should become a permanent
+feature.
+@end deffn
+
@deffn {Construct} /*@dots{}*/
Comment delimiters, as in C.
@end deffn
Equip the parser for debugging. @xref{Decl Summary}.
@end deffn
-@deffn {Directive} %debug
-Equip the parser for debugging. @xref{Decl Summary}.
-@end deffn
-
@ifset defaultprec
@deffn {Directive} %default-prec
Assign a precedence to rules that lack an explicit @samp{%prec}
@deffn {Directive} %define @var{define-variable}
@deffnx {Directive} %define @var{define-variable} @var{value}
+@deffnx {Directive} %define @var{define-variable} "@var{value}"
Define a variable to adjust Bison's behavior.
@xref{Decl Summary,,%define}.
@end deffn
@end deffn
@deffn {Directive} %error-verbose
-Bison declaration to request verbose, specific error message strings
-when @code{yyerror} is called.
+An obsolete directive standing for @samp{%define parse.error verbose}.
@end deffn
@deffn {Directive} %file-prefix "@var{prefix}"
@xref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}.
@end deffn
-@deffn {Directive} %lex-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@}
-Bison declaration to specifying an additional parameter that
+@deffn {Directive} %lex-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} @dots{}
+Bison declaration to specifying additional arguments that
@code{yylex} should accept. @xref{Pure Calling,, Calling Conventions
for Pure Parsers}.
@end deffn
Summary}.
@end deffn
-@deffn {Directive} %parse-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@}
-Bison declaration to specifying an additional parameter that
-@code{yyparse} should accept. @xref{Parser Function,, The Parser
-Function @code{yyparse}}.
+@deffn {Directive} %param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} @dots{}
+Bison declaration to specify additional arguments that both
+@code{yylex} and @code{yyparse} should accept. @xref{Parser Function,, The
+Parser Function @code{yyparse}}.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn {Directive} %parse-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} @dots{}
+Bison declaration to specify additional arguments that @code{yyparse}
+should accept. @xref{Parser Function,, The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}.
@end deffn
@deffn {Directive} %prec
@end deffn
@deffn {Directive} %pure-parser
-Deprecated version of @code{%define api.pure} (@pxref{Decl Summary, ,%define}),
+Deprecated version of @samp{%define api.pure} (@pxref{Decl Summary, ,%define}),
for which Bison is more careful to warn about unreasonable usage.
@end deffn
@deffn {Function} yyerror
User-supplied function to be called by @code{yyparse} on error.
-@xref{Error Reporting, ,The Error
-Reporting Function @code{yyerror}}.
+@xref{Error Reporting, ,The Error Reporting Function @code{yyerror}}.
@end deffn
@deffn {Macro} YYERROR_VERBOSE
-An obsolete macro that you define with @code{#define} in the prologue
-to request verbose, specific error message strings
-when @code{yyerror} is called. It doesn't matter what definition you
-use for @code{YYERROR_VERBOSE}, just whether you define it. Using
-@code{%error-verbose} is preferred.
+An obsolete macro used in the @file{yacc.c} skeleton, that you define
+with @code{#define} in the prologue to request verbose, specific error
+message strings when @code{yyerror} is called. It doesn't matter what
+definition you use for @code{YYERROR_VERBOSE}, just whether you define
+it. Using @samp{%define parse.error verbose} is preferred
+(@pxref{Error Reporting, ,The Error Reporting Function @code{yyerror}}).
@end deffn
@deffn {Macro} YYINITDEPTH
@end deffn
@deffn {Macro} YYSTACK_USE_ALLOCA
-Macro used to control the use of @code{alloca} when the C
-@acronym{LALR}(1) parser needs to extend its stacks. If defined to 0,
+Macro used to control the use of @code{alloca} when the
+deterministic parser in C needs to extend its stacks. If defined to 0,
the parser will use @code{malloc} to extend its stacks. If defined to
1, the parser will use @code{alloca}. Values other than 0 and 1 are
reserved for future Bison extensions. If not defined,
@cindex glossary
@table @asis
+@item Accepting State
+A state whose only action is the accept action.
+The accepting state is thus a consistent state.
+@xref{Understanding,,}.
+
@item Backus-Naur Form (@acronym{BNF}; also called ``Backus Normal Form'')
Formal method of specifying context-free grammars originally proposed
by John Backus, and slightly improved by Peter Naur in his 1960-01-02
committee document contributing to what became the Algol 60 report.
@xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}.
+@item Consistent State
+A state containing only one possible action.
+@xref{Decl Summary,,lr.default-reductions}.
+
@item Context-free grammars
Grammars specified as rules that can be applied regardless of context.
Thus, if there is a rule which says that an integer can be used as an
permitted. @xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free
Grammars}.
+@item Default Reduction
+The reduction that a parser should perform if the current parser state
+contains no other action for the lookahead token.
+In permitted parser states, Bison declares the reduction with the
+largest lookahead set to be the default reduction and removes that
+lookahead set.
+@xref{Decl Summary,,lr.default-reductions}.
+
@item Dynamic allocation
Allocation of memory that occurs during execution, rather than at
compile time or on entry to a function.
@item Generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR})
A parsing algorithm that can handle all context-free grammars, including those
-that are not @acronym{LALR}(1). It resolves situations that Bison's
-usual @acronym{LALR}(1)
+that are not @acronym{LR}(1). It resolves situations that Bison's
+deterministic parsing
algorithm cannot by effectively splitting off multiple parsers, trying all
possible parsers, and discarding those that fail in the light of additional
right context. @xref{Generalized LR Parsing, ,Generalized
for example, `expression' or `declaration' in C@.
@xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}.
+@item @acronym{IELR}(1)
+A minimal @acronym{LR}(1) parser table generation algorithm.
+That is, given any context-free grammar, @acronym{IELR}(1) generates
+parser tables with the full language recognition power of canonical
+@acronym{LR}(1) but with nearly the same number of parser states as
+@acronym{LALR}(1).
+This reduction in parser states is often an order of magnitude.
+More importantly, because canonical @acronym{LR}(1)'s extra parser
+states may contain duplicate conflicts in the case of
+non-@acronym{LR}(1) grammars, the number of conflicts for
+@acronym{IELR}(1) is often an order of magnitude less as well.
+This can significantly reduce the complexity of developing of a grammar.
+@xref{Decl Summary,,lr.type}.
+
@item Infix operator
An arithmetic operator that is placed between the operands on which it
performs some operation.
@item @acronym{LALR}(1)
The class of context-free grammars that Bison (like most other parser
-generators) can handle; a subset of @acronym{LR}(1). @xref{Mystery
-Conflicts, ,Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}.
+generators) can handle by default; a subset of @acronym{LR}(1).
+@xref{Mystery Conflicts, ,Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}.
@item @acronym{LR}(1)
The class of context-free grammars in which at most one token of
@bye
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