X-Git-Url: https://git.saurik.com/bison.git/blobdiff_plain/d5796688b17857ba9041aa65c67f5c2c1c88c3bc..52d9d4112f9fa2f0403da386d9346f1ccffc818b:/doc/bison.texinfo diff --git a/doc/bison.texinfo b/doc/bison.texinfo index 5ec63108..69eb649f 100644 --- a/doc/bison.texinfo +++ b/doc/bison.texinfo @@ -5,9 +5,7 @@ @settitle Bison @value{VERSION} @setchapternewpage odd -@iftex @finalout -@end iftex @c SMALL BOOK version @c This edition has been formatted so that you can format and print it in @@ -18,11 +16,16 @@ @c @clear shorttitlepage-enabled @c @set shorttitlepage-enabled +@c Set following if you want to document %default-prec and %no-default-prec. +@c This feature is experimental and may change in future Bison versions. +@c @set defaultprec + @c ISPELL CHECK: done, 14 Jan 1993 --bob @c Check COPYRIGHT dates. should be updated in the titlepage, ifinfo @c titlepage; should NOT be changed in the GPL. --mew +@c FIXME: I don't understand this `iftex'. Obsolete? --akim. @iftex @syncodeindex fn cp @syncodeindex vr cp @@ -35,109 +38,70 @@ @end ifinfo @comment %**end of header -@ifinfo -@format -START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY -* bison: (bison). GNU Project parser generator (yacc replacement). -END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY -@end format -@end ifinfo +@copying -@ifinfo -This file documents the Bison parser generator. - -Copyright (C) 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000 -Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of -this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice -are preserved on all copies. - -@ignore -Permission is granted to process this file through Tex and print the -results, provided the printed document carries copying permission -notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph -(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual). - -@end ignore -Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this -manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the -sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Conditions for -Using Bison'' are included exactly as in the original, and provided that -the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a -permission notice identical to this one. - -Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual -into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, -except that the sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'', -``Conditions for Using Bison'' and this permission notice may be -included in translations approved by the Free Software Foundation -instead of in the original English. -@end ifinfo +This manual is for @acronym{GNU} Bison (version @value{VERSION}, +@value{UPDATED}), the @acronym{GNU} parser generator. + +Copyright @copyright{} 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1998, +1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 Free Software Foundation, Inc. + +@quotation +Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document +under the terms of the @acronym{GNU} Free Documentation License, +Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software +Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover texts +being ``A @acronym{GNU} Manual,'' and with the Back-Cover Texts as in +(a) below. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled +``@acronym{GNU} Free Documentation License.'' + +(a) The @acronym{FSF}'s Back-Cover Text is: ``You have freedom to copy +and modify this @acronym{GNU} Manual, like @acronym{GNU} software. +Copies published by the Free Software Foundation raise funds for +@acronym{GNU} development.'' +@end quotation +@end copying + +@dircategory Software development +@direntry +* bison: (bison). @acronym{GNU} parser generator (Yacc replacement). +@end direntry @ifset shorttitlepage-enabled @shorttitlepage Bison @end ifset @titlepage @title Bison -@subtitle The YACC-compatible Parser Generator +@subtitle The Yacc-compatible Parser Generator @subtitle @value{UPDATED}, Bison Version @value{VERSION} @author by Charles Donnelly and Richard Stallman @page @vskip 0pt plus 1filll -Copyright @copyright{} 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1998, -1999, 2000 -Free Software Foundation, Inc. - +@insertcopying @sp 2 Published by the Free Software Foundation @* -59 Temple Place, Suite 330 @* -Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA @* +51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor @* +Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA @* Printed copies are available from the Free Software Foundation.@* -ISBN 1-882114-44-2 - -Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of -this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice -are preserved on all copies. - -@ignore -Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the -results, provided the printed document carries copying permission -notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph -(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual). - -@end ignore -Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this -manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the -sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Conditions for -Using Bison'' are included exactly as in the original, and provided that -the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a -permission notice identical to this one. - -Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual -into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, -except that the sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'', -``Conditions for Using Bison'' and this permission notice may be -included in translations approved by the Free Software Foundation -instead of in the original English. +@acronym{ISBN} 1-882114-44-2 @sp 2 Cover art by Etienne Suvasa. @end titlepage @contents -@node Top, Introduction, (dir), (dir) - -@ifinfo -This manual documents version @value{VERSION} of Bison. -@end ifinfo +@ifnottex +@node Top +@top Bison +@insertcopying +@end ifnottex @menu * Introduction:: * Conditions:: -* Copying:: The GNU General Public License says +* Copying:: The @acronym{GNU} General Public License says how you can copy and share Bison Tutorial sections: @@ -151,12 +115,16 @@ Reference sections: * Error Recovery:: Writing rules for error recovery. * Context Dependency:: What to do if your language syntax is too messy for Bison to handle straightforwardly. -* Debugging:: Debugging Bison parsers that parse wrong. +* Debugging:: Understanding or debugging Bison parsers. * Invocation:: How to run Bison (to produce the parser source file). +* C++ Language Interface:: Creating C++ parser objects. +* FAQ:: Frequently Asked Questions * Table of Symbols:: All the keywords of the Bison language are explained. * Glossary:: Basic concepts are explained. +* Copying This Manual:: License for copying this manual. * Index:: Cross-references to the text. +@detailmenu --- The Detailed Node Listing --- The Concepts of Bison @@ -168,11 +136,19 @@ The Concepts of Bison a semantic value (the value of an integer, the name of an identifier, etc.). * Semantic Actions:: Each rule can have an action containing C code. +* GLR Parsers:: Writing parsers for general context-free languages. +* Locations Overview:: Tracking Locations. * Bison Parser:: What are Bison's input and output, how is the output used? * Stages:: Stages in writing and running Bison grammars. * Grammar Layout:: Overall structure of a Bison grammar file. +Writing @acronym{GLR} Parsers + +* Simple GLR Parsers:: Using @acronym{GLR} parsers on unambiguous grammars +* Merging GLR Parses:: Using @acronym{GLR} parsers to resolve ambiguities +* Compiler Requirements:: @acronym{GLR} parsers require a modern C compiler + Examples * RPN Calc:: Reverse polish notation calculator; @@ -180,13 +156,14 @@ Examples * Infix Calc:: Infix (algebraic) notation calculator. Operator precedence is introduced. * Simple Error Recovery:: Continuing after syntax errors. -* Multi-function Calc:: Calculator with memory and trig functions. - It uses multiple data-types for semantic values. +* Location Tracking Calc:: Demonstrating the use of @@@var{n} and @@$. +* Multi-function Calc:: Calculator with memory and trig functions. + It uses multiple data-types for semantic values. * Exercises:: Ideas for improving the multi-function calculator. Reverse Polish Notation Calculator -* Decls: Rpcalc Decls. Bison and C declarations for rpcalc. +* Decls: Rpcalc Decls. Prologue (declarations) for rpcalc. * Rules: Rpcalc Rules. Grammar Rules for rpcalc, with explanation. * Lexer: Rpcalc Lexer. The lexical analyzer. * Main: Rpcalc Main. The controlling function. @@ -200,6 +177,12 @@ Grammar Rules for @code{rpcalc} * Rpcalc Line:: * Rpcalc Expr:: +Location Tracking Calculator: @code{ltcalc} + +* Decls: Ltcalc Decls. Bison and C declarations for ltcalc. +* Rules: Ltcalc Rules. Grammar rules for ltcalc, with explanations. +* Lexer: Ltcalc Lexer. The lexical analyzer. + Multi-Function Calculator: @code{mfcalc} * Decl: Mfcalc Decl. Bison declarations for multi-function calculator. @@ -213,15 +196,16 @@ Bison Grammar Files * Rules:: How to write grammar rules. * Recursion:: Writing recursive rules. * Semantics:: Semantic values and actions. +* Locations:: Locations and actions. * Declarations:: All kinds of Bison declarations are described here. * Multiple Parsers:: Putting more than one Bison parser in one program. Outline of a Bison Grammar -* C Declarations:: Syntax and usage of the C declarations section. +* Prologue:: Syntax and usage of the prologue. * Bison Declarations:: Syntax and usage of the Bison declarations section. * Grammar Rules:: Syntax and usage of the grammar rules section. -* C Code:: Syntax and usage of the additional C code section. +* Epilogue:: Syntax and usage of the epilogue. Defining Language Semantics @@ -233,13 +217,22 @@ Defining Language Semantics This says when, why and how to use the exceptional action in the middle of a rule. +Tracking Locations + +* Location Type:: Specifying a data type for locations. +* Actions and Locations:: Using locations in actions. +* Location Default Action:: Defining a general way to compute locations. + Bison Declarations +* Require Decl:: Requiring a Bison version. * Token Decl:: Declaring terminal symbols. * Precedence Decl:: Declaring terminals with precedence and associativity. * Union Decl:: Declaring the set of all semantic value types. * Type Decl:: Declaring the choice of type for a nonterminal symbol. -* Expect Decl:: Suppressing warnings about shift/reduce conflicts. +* Initial Action Decl:: Code run before parsing starts. +* Destructor Decl:: Declaring how symbols are freed. +* Expect Decl:: Suppressing warnings about parsing conflicts. * Start Decl:: Specifying the start symbol. * Pure Decl:: Requesting a reentrant parser. * Decl Summary:: Table of all Bison declarations. @@ -251,15 +244,17 @@ Parser C-Language Interface which reads tokens. * Error Reporting:: You must supply a function @code{yyerror}. * Action Features:: Special features for use in actions. +* Internationalization:: How to let the parser speak in the user's + native language. The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex} * Calling Convention:: How @code{yyparse} calls @code{yylex}. * Token Values:: How @code{yylex} must return the semantic value of the token it has read. -* Token Positions:: How @code{yylex} must return the text position +* Token Locations:: How @code{yylex} must return the text location (line number, etc.) of the token, if the - actions want that. + actions want that. * Pure Calling:: How the calling convention differs in a pure parser (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}). @@ -272,7 +267,8 @@ The Bison Parser Algorithm * Parser States:: The parser is a finite-state-machine with stack. * Reduce/Reduce:: When two rules are applicable in the same situation. * Mystery Conflicts:: Reduce/reduce conflicts that look unjustified. -* Stack Overflow:: What happens when stack gets full. How to avoid it. +* Generalized LR Parsing:: Parsing arbitrary context-free grammars. +* Memory Management:: What happens when memory is exhausted. How to avoid it. Operator Precedence @@ -288,20 +284,59 @@ Handling Context Dependencies * Tie-in Recovery:: Lexical tie-ins have implications for how error recovery rules must be written. +Debugging Your Parser + +* Understanding:: Understanding the structure of your parser. +* Tracing:: Tracing the execution of your parser. + Invoking Bison * Bison Options:: All the options described in detail, - in alphabetical order by short options. + in alphabetical order by short options. * Option Cross Key:: Alphabetical list of long options. -* VMS Invocation:: Bison command syntax on VMS. +* Yacc Library:: Yacc-compatible @code{yylex} and @code{main}. + +C++ Language Interface + +* C++ Parsers:: The interface to generate C++ parser classes +* A Complete C++ Example:: Demonstrating their use + +C++ Parsers + +* C++ Bison Interface:: Asking for C++ parser generation +* C++ Semantic Values:: %union vs. C++ +* C++ Location Values:: The position and location classes +* C++ Parser Interface:: Instantiating and running the parser +* C++ Scanner Interface:: Exchanges between yylex and parse + +A Complete C++ Example + +* Calc++ --- C++ Calculator:: The specifications +* Calc++ Parsing Driver:: An active parsing context +* Calc++ Parser:: A parser class +* Calc++ Scanner:: A pure C++ Flex scanner +* Calc++ Top Level:: Conducting the band + +Frequently Asked Questions + +* Memory Exhausted:: Breaking the Stack Limits +* How Can I Reset the Parser:: @code{yyparse} Keeps some State +* Strings are Destroyed:: @code{yylval} Loses Track of Strings +* Implementing Gotos/Loops:: Control Flow in the Calculator + +Copying This Manual + +* GNU Free Documentation License:: License for copying this manual. + +@end detailmenu @end menu -@node Introduction, Conditions, Top, Top +@node Introduction @unnumbered Introduction @cindex introduction @dfn{Bison} is a general-purpose parser generator that converts a -grammar description for an LALR(1) context-free grammar into a C +grammar description for an @acronym{LALR}(1) context-free grammar into a C program to parse that grammar. Once you are proficient with Bison, you may use it to develop a wide range of language parsers, from those used in simple desk calculators to complex programming languages. @@ -318,19 +353,20 @@ chapters follow which describe specific aspects of Bison in detail. Bison was written primarily by Robert Corbett; Richard Stallman made it Yacc-compatible. Wilfred Hansen of Carnegie Mellon University added -multicharacter string literals and other features. +multi-character string literals and other features. This edition corresponds to version @value{VERSION} of Bison. -@node Conditions, Copying, Introduction, Top +@node Conditions @unnumbered Conditions for Using Bison As of Bison version 1.24, we have changed the distribution terms for -@code{yyparse} to permit using Bison's output in nonfree programs. -Formerly, Bison parsers could be used only in programs that were free -software. +@code{yyparse} to permit using Bison's output in nonfree programs when +Bison is generating C code for @acronym{LALR}(1) parsers. Formerly, these +parsers could be used only in programs that were free software. -The other GNU programming tools, such as the GNU C compiler, have never +The other @acronym{GNU} programming tools, such as the @acronym{GNU} C +compiler, have never had such a requirement. They could always be used for nonfree software. The reason Bison was different was not due to a special policy decision; it resulted from applying the usual General Public @@ -340,7 +376,8 @@ The output of the Bison utility---the Bison parser file---contains a verbatim copy of a sizable piece of Bison, which is the code for the @code{yyparse} function. (The actions from your grammar are inserted into this function at one point, but the rest of the function is not -changed.) When we applied the GPL terms to the code for @code{yyparse}, +changed.) When we applied the @acronym{GPL} terms to the code for +@code{yyparse}, the effect was to restrict the use of Bison output to free software. We didn't change the terms because of sympathy for people who want to @@ -348,402 +385,19 @@ make software proprietary. @strong{Software should be free.} But we concluded that limiting Bison's use to free software was doing little to encourage people to make other software free. So we decided to make the practical conditions for using Bison match the practical conditions for -using the other GNU tools. - -@node Copying, Concepts, Conditions, Top -@unnumbered GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE -@center Version 2, June 1991 - -@display -Copyright @copyright{} 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. -59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA - -Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies -of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. -@end display - -@unnumberedsec Preamble - - The licenses for most software are designed to take away your -freedom to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public -License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free -software---to make sure the software is free for all its users. This -General Public License applies to most of the Free Software -Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to -using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by -the GNU Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it to -your programs, too. - - When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not -price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you -have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for -this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it -if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it -in new free programs; and that you know you can do these things. - - To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid -anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. -These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you -distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it. - - For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether -gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that -you have. 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It is safest -to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively -convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least -the ``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. - -@smallexample -@var{one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.} -Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author} - -This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify -it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by -the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or -(at your option) any later version. - -This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, -but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of -MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the -GNU General Public License for more details. - -You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License -along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software -Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, -Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA. -@end smallexample +using the other @acronym{GNU} tools. -Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. +This exception applies only when Bison is generating C code for an +@acronym{LALR}(1) parser; otherwise, the @acronym{GPL} terms operate +as usual. You can +tell whether the exception applies to your @samp{.c} output file by +inspecting it to see whether it says ``As a special exception, when +this file is copied by Bison into a Bison output file, you may use +that output file without restriction.'' -If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this -when it starts in an interactive mode: +@include gpl.texi -@smallexample -Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author} -Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details -type `show w'. -This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it -under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. -@end smallexample - -The hypothetical commands @samp{show w} and @samp{show c} should show -the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the -commands you use may be called something other than @samp{show w} and -@samp{show c}; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items---whatever -suits your program. - -You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your -school, if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if -necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names: - -@smallexample -Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program -`Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker. - -@var{signature of Ty Coon}, 1 April 1989 -Ty Coon, President of Vice -@end smallexample - -This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into -proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may -consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the -library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library General -Public License instead of this License. - -@node Concepts, Examples, Copying, Top +@node Concepts @chapter The Concepts of Bison This chapter introduces many of the basic concepts without which the @@ -758,13 +412,15 @@ use Bison or Yacc, we suggest you start by reading this chapter carefully. a semantic value (the value of an integer, the name of an identifier, etc.). * Semantic Actions:: Each rule can have an action containing C code. +* GLR Parsers:: Writing parsers for general context-free languages. +* Locations Overview:: Tracking Locations. * Bison Parser:: What are Bison's input and output, how is the output used? * Stages:: Stages in writing and running Bison grammars. * Grammar Layout:: Overall structure of a Bison grammar file. @end menu -@node Language and Grammar, Grammar in Bison, , Concepts +@node Language and Grammar @section Languages and Context-Free Grammars @cindex context-free grammar @@ -779,57 +435,92 @@ can be made of a minus sign and another expression''. Another would be, recursive, but there must be at least one rule which leads out of the recursion. -@cindex BNF +@cindex @acronym{BNF} @cindex Backus-Naur form The most common formal system for presenting such rules for humans to read -is @dfn{Backus-Naur Form} or ``BNF'', which was developed in order to -specify the language Algol 60. Any grammar expressed in BNF is a -context-free grammar. The input to Bison is essentially machine-readable -BNF. - -Not all context-free languages can be handled by Bison, only those -that are LALR(1). In brief, this means that it must be possible to +is @dfn{Backus-Naur Form} or ``@acronym{BNF}'', which was developed in +order to specify the language Algol 60. Any grammar expressed in +@acronym{BNF} is a context-free grammar. The input to Bison is +essentially machine-readable @acronym{BNF}. + +@cindex @acronym{LALR}(1) grammars +@cindex @acronym{LR}(1) grammars +There are various important subclasses of context-free grammar. Although it +can handle almost all context-free grammars, Bison is optimized for what +are called @acronym{LALR}(1) grammars. +In brief, in these grammars, it must be possible to tell how to parse any portion of an input string with just a single token of look-ahead. Strictly speaking, that is a description of an -LR(1) grammar, and LALR(1) involves additional restrictions that are +@acronym{LR}(1) grammar, and @acronym{LALR}(1) involves additional +restrictions that are hard to explain simply; but it is rare in actual practice to find an -LR(1) grammar that fails to be LALR(1). @xref{Mystery Conflicts, , -Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}, for more information on this. +@acronym{LR}(1) grammar that fails to be @acronym{LALR}(1). +@xref{Mystery Conflicts, ,Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}, for +more information on this. + +@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsing +@cindex generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) parsing +@cindex ambiguous grammars +@cindex non-deterministic parsing + +Parsers for @acronym{LALR}(1) grammars are @dfn{deterministic}, meaning +roughly that the next grammar rule to apply at any point in the input is +uniquely determined by the preceding input and a fixed, finite portion +(called a @dfn{look-ahead}) of the remaining input. A context-free +grammar can be @dfn{ambiguous}, meaning that there are multiple ways to +apply the grammar rules to get the same inputs. Even unambiguous +grammars can be @dfn{non-deterministic}, meaning that no fixed +look-ahead always suffices to determine the next grammar rule to apply. +With the proper declarations, Bison is also able to parse these more +general context-free grammars, using a technique known as @acronym{GLR} +parsing (for Generalized @acronym{LR}). Bison's @acronym{GLR} parsers +are able to handle any context-free grammar for which the number of +possible parses of any given string is finite. @cindex symbols (abstract) @cindex token @cindex syntactic grouping @cindex grouping, syntactic -In the formal grammatical rules for a language, each kind of syntactic unit -or grouping is named by a @dfn{symbol}. Those which are built by grouping -smaller constructs according to grammatical rules are called +In the formal grammatical rules for a language, each kind of syntactic +unit or grouping is named by a @dfn{symbol}. Those which are built by +grouping smaller constructs according to grammatical rules are called @dfn{nonterminal symbols}; those which can't be subdivided are called @dfn{terminal symbols} or @dfn{token types}. We call a piece of input corresponding to a single terminal symbol a @dfn{token}, and a piece -corresponding to a single nonterminal symbol a @dfn{grouping}.@refill +corresponding to a single nonterminal symbol a @dfn{grouping}. We can use the C language as an example of what symbols, terminal and -nonterminal, mean. The tokens of C are identifiers, constants (numeric and -string), and the various keywords, arithmetic operators and punctuation -marks. So the terminal symbols of a grammar for C include `identifier', -`number', `string', plus one symbol for each keyword, operator or -punctuation mark: `if', `return', `const', `static', `int', `char', -`plus-sign', `open-brace', `close-brace', `comma' and many more. (These -tokens can be subdivided into characters, but that is a matter of +nonterminal, mean. The tokens of C are identifiers, constants (numeric +and string), and the various keywords, arithmetic operators and +punctuation marks. So the terminal symbols of a grammar for C include +`identifier', `number', `string', plus one symbol for each keyword, +operator or punctuation mark: `if', `return', `const', `static', `int', +`char', `plus-sign', `open-brace', `close-brace', `comma' and many more. +(These tokens can be subdivided into characters, but that is a matter of lexicography, not grammar.) Here is a simple C function subdivided into tokens: +@ifinfo +@example +int /* @r{keyword `int'} */ +square (int x) /* @r{identifier, open-paren, keyword `int',} + @r{identifier, close-paren} */ +@{ /* @r{open-brace} */ + return x * x; /* @r{keyword `return', identifier, asterisk, + identifier, semicolon} */ +@} /* @r{close-brace} */ +@end example +@end ifinfo +@ifnotinfo @example int /* @r{keyword `int'} */ -square (x) /* @r{identifier, open-paren,} */ - /* @r{identifier, close-paren} */ - int x; /* @r{keyword `int', identifier, semicolon} */ +square (int x) /* @r{identifier, open-paren, keyword `int', identifier, close-paren} */ @{ /* @r{open-brace} */ - return x * x; /* @r{keyword `return', identifier,} */ - /* @r{asterisk, identifier, semicolon} */ + return x * x; /* @r{keyword `return', identifier, asterisk, identifier, semicolon} */ @} /* @r{close-brace} */ @end example +@end ifnotinfo The syntactic groupings of C include the expression, the statement, the declaration, and the function definition. These are represented in the @@ -873,7 +564,7 @@ the grammar's start symbol. If we use a grammar for C, the entire input must be a `sequence of definitions and declarations'. If not, the parser reports a syntax error. -@node Grammar in Bison, Semantic Values, Language and Grammar, Concepts +@node Grammar in Bison @section From Formal Rules to Bison Input @cindex Bison grammar @cindex grammar, Bison @@ -884,7 +575,7 @@ for Bison, you must write a file expressing the grammar in Bison syntax: a @dfn{Bison grammar} file. @xref{Grammar File, ,Bison Grammar Files}. A nonterminal symbol in the formal grammar is represented in Bison input -as an identifier, like an identifier in C. By convention, it should be +as an identifier, like an identifier in C@. By convention, it should be in lower case, such as @code{expr}, @code{stmt} or @code{declaration}. The Bison representation for a terminal symbol is also called a @dfn{token @@ -918,7 +609,7 @@ stmt: RETURN expr ';' @noindent @xref{Rules, ,Syntax of Grammar Rules}. -@node Semantic Values, Semantic Actions, Grammar in Bison, Concepts +@node Semantic Values @section Semantic Values @cindex semantic value @cindex value, semantic @@ -928,19 +619,20 @@ if a rule mentions the terminal symbol `integer constant', it means that @emph{any} integer constant is grammatically valid in that position. The precise value of the constant is irrelevant to how to parse the input: if @samp{x+4} is grammatical then @samp{x+1} or @samp{x+3989} is equally -grammatical.@refill +grammatical. But the precise value is very important for what the input means once it is parsed. A compiler is useless if it fails to distinguish between 4, 1 and 3989 as constants in the program! Therefore, each token in a Bison grammar -has both a token type and a @dfn{semantic value}. @xref{Semantics, ,Defining Language Semantics}, +has both a token type and a @dfn{semantic value}. @xref{Semantics, +,Defining Language Semantics}, for details. The token type is a terminal symbol defined in the grammar, such as @code{INTEGER}, @code{IDENTIFIER} or @code{','}. It tells everything you need to know to decide where the token may validly appear and how to group it with other tokens. The grammar rules know nothing about tokens -except their types.@refill +except their types. The semantic value has all the rest of the information about the meaning of the token, such as the value of an integer, or the name of an @@ -960,7 +652,7 @@ semantic value that is a number. In a compiler for a programming language, an expression typically has a semantic value that is a tree structure describing the meaning of the expression. -@node Semantic Actions, Bison Parser, Semantic Values, Concepts +@node Semantic Actions @section Semantic Actions @cindex semantic actions @cindex actions, semantic @@ -991,140 +683,627 @@ expr: expr '+' expr @{ $$ = $1 + $3; @} The action says how to produce the semantic value of the sum expression from the values of the two subexpressions. -@node Bison Parser, Stages, Semantic Actions, Concepts -@section Bison Output: the Parser File -@cindex Bison parser -@cindex Bison utility -@cindex lexical analyzer, purpose -@cindex parser +@node GLR Parsers +@section Writing @acronym{GLR} Parsers +@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsing +@cindex generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) parsing +@findex %glr-parser +@cindex conflicts +@cindex shift/reduce conflicts +@cindex reduce/reduce conflicts + +In some grammars, Bison's standard +@acronym{LALR}(1) parsing algorithm cannot decide whether to apply a +certain grammar rule at a given point. That is, it may not be able to +decide (on the basis of the input read so far) which of two possible +reductions (applications of a grammar rule) applies, or whether to apply +a reduction or read more of the input and apply a reduction later in the +input. These are known respectively as @dfn{reduce/reduce} conflicts +(@pxref{Reduce/Reduce}), and @dfn{shift/reduce} conflicts +(@pxref{Shift/Reduce}). + +To use a grammar that is not easily modified to be @acronym{LALR}(1), a +more general parsing algorithm is sometimes necessary. If you include +@code{%glr-parser} among the Bison declarations in your file +(@pxref{Grammar Outline}), the result is a Generalized @acronym{LR} +(@acronym{GLR}) parser. These parsers handle Bison grammars that +contain no unresolved conflicts (i.e., after applying precedence +declarations) identically to @acronym{LALR}(1) parsers. However, when +faced with unresolved shift/reduce and reduce/reduce conflicts, +@acronym{GLR} parsers use the simple expedient of doing both, +effectively cloning the parser to follow both possibilities. Each of +the resulting parsers can again split, so that at any given time, there +can be any number of possible parses being explored. The parsers +proceed in lockstep; that is, all of them consume (shift) a given input +symbol before any of them proceed to the next. Each of the cloned +parsers eventually meets one of two possible fates: either it runs into +a parsing error, in which case it simply vanishes, or it merges with +another parser, because the two of them have reduced the input to an +identical set of symbols. + +During the time that there are multiple parsers, semantic actions are +recorded, but not performed. When a parser disappears, its recorded +semantic actions disappear as well, and are never performed. When a +reduction makes two parsers identical, causing them to merge, Bison +records both sets of semantic actions. Whenever the last two parsers +merge, reverting to the single-parser case, Bison resolves all the +outstanding actions either by precedences given to the grammar rules +involved, or by performing both actions, and then calling a designated +user-defined function on the resulting values to produce an arbitrary +merged result. -When you run Bison, you give it a Bison grammar file as input. The output -is a C source file that parses the language described by the grammar. -This file is called a @dfn{Bison parser}. Keep in mind that the Bison -utility and the Bison parser are two distinct programs: the Bison utility -is a program whose output is the Bison parser that becomes part of your -program. +@menu +* Simple GLR Parsers:: Using @acronym{GLR} parsers on unambiguous grammars +* Merging GLR Parses:: Using @acronym{GLR} parsers to resolve ambiguities +* Compiler Requirements:: @acronym{GLR} parsers require a modern C compiler +@end menu -The job of the Bison parser is to group tokens into groupings according to -the grammar rules---for example, to build identifiers and operators into -expressions. As it does this, it runs the actions for the grammar rules it -uses. +@node Simple GLR Parsers +@subsection Using @acronym{GLR} on Unambiguous Grammars +@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsing, unambiguous grammars +@cindex generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) parsing, unambiguous grammars +@findex %glr-parser +@findex %expect-rr +@cindex conflicts +@cindex reduce/reduce conflicts +@cindex shift/reduce conflicts -The tokens come from a function called the @dfn{lexical analyzer} that you -must supply in some fashion (such as by writing it in C). The Bison parser -calls the lexical analyzer each time it wants a new token. It doesn't know -what is ``inside'' the tokens (though their semantic values may reflect -this). Typically the lexical analyzer makes the tokens by parsing -characters of text, but Bison does not depend on this. @xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}. +In the simplest cases, you can use the @acronym{GLR} algorithm +to parse grammars that are unambiguous, but fail to be @acronym{LALR}(1). +Such grammars typically require more than one symbol of look-ahead, +or (in rare cases) fall into the category of grammars in which the +@acronym{LALR}(1) algorithm throws away too much information (they are in +@acronym{LR}(1), but not @acronym{LALR}(1), @ref{Mystery Conflicts}). -The Bison parser file is C code which defines a function named -@code{yyparse} which implements that grammar. This function does not make -a complete C program: you must supply some additional functions. One is -the lexical analyzer. Another is an error-reporting function which the -parser calls to report an error. In addition, a complete C program must -start with a function called @code{main}; you have to provide this, and -arrange for it to call @code{yyparse} or the parser will never run. -@xref{Interface, ,Parser C-Language Interface}. +Consider a problem that +arises in the declaration of enumerated and subrange types in the +programming language Pascal. Here are some examples: -Aside from the token type names and the symbols in the actions you -write, all variable and function names used in the Bison parser file -begin with @samp{yy} or @samp{YY}. This includes interface functions -such as the lexical analyzer function @code{yylex}, the error reporting -function @code{yyerror} and the parser function @code{yyparse} itself. -This also includes numerous identifiers used for internal purposes. -Therefore, you should avoid using C identifiers starting with @samp{yy} -or @samp{YY} in the Bison grammar file except for the ones defined in -this manual. +@example +type subrange = lo .. hi; +type enum = (a, b, c); +@end example -@node Stages, Grammar Layout, Bison Parser, Concepts -@section Stages in Using Bison -@cindex stages in using Bison -@cindex using Bison +@noindent +The original language standard allows only numeric +literals and constant identifiers for the subrange bounds (@samp{lo} +and @samp{hi}), but Extended Pascal (@acronym{ISO}/@acronym{IEC} +10206) and many other +Pascal implementations allow arbitrary expressions there. This gives +rise to the following situation, containing a superfluous pair of +parentheses: -The actual language-design process using Bison, from grammar specification -to a working compiler or interpreter, has these parts: +@example +type subrange = (a) .. b; +@end example -@enumerate -@item -Formally specify the grammar in a form recognized by Bison -(@pxref{Grammar File, ,Bison Grammar Files}). For each grammatical rule in the language, -describe the action that is to be taken when an instance of that rule -is recognized. The action is described by a sequence of C statements. +@noindent +Compare this to the following declaration of an enumerated +type with only one value: -@item -Write a lexical analyzer to process input and pass tokens to the -parser. The lexical analyzer may be written by hand in C -(@pxref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}). It could also be produced using Lex, but the use -of Lex is not discussed in this manual. +@example +type enum = (a); +@end example -@item -Write a controlling function that calls the Bison-produced parser. +@noindent +(These declarations are contrived, but they are syntactically +valid, and more-complicated cases can come up in practical programs.) + +These two declarations look identical until the @samp{..} token. +With normal @acronym{LALR}(1) one-token look-ahead it is not +possible to decide between the two forms when the identifier +@samp{a} is parsed. It is, however, desirable +for a parser to decide this, since in the latter case +@samp{a} must become a new identifier to represent the enumeration +value, while in the former case @samp{a} must be evaluated with its +current meaning, which may be a constant or even a function call. + +You could parse @samp{(a)} as an ``unspecified identifier in parentheses'', +to be resolved later, but this typically requires substantial +contortions in both semantic actions and large parts of the +grammar, where the parentheses are nested in the recursive rules for +expressions. + +You might think of using the lexer to distinguish between the two +forms by returning different tokens for currently defined and +undefined identifiers. But if these declarations occur in a local +scope, and @samp{a} is defined in an outer scope, then both forms +are possible---either locally redefining @samp{a}, or using the +value of @samp{a} from the outer scope. So this approach cannot +work. + +A simple solution to this problem is to declare the parser to +use the @acronym{GLR} algorithm. +When the @acronym{GLR} parser reaches the critical state, it +merely splits into two branches and pursues both syntax rules +simultaneously. Sooner or later, one of them runs into a parsing +error. If there is a @samp{..} token before the next +@samp{;}, the rule for enumerated types fails since it cannot +accept @samp{..} anywhere; otherwise, the subrange type rule +fails since it requires a @samp{..} token. So one of the branches +fails silently, and the other one continues normally, performing +all the intermediate actions that were postponed during the split. + +If the input is syntactically incorrect, both branches fail and the parser +reports a syntax error as usual. + +The effect of all this is that the parser seems to ``guess'' the +correct branch to take, or in other words, it seems to use more +look-ahead than the underlying @acronym{LALR}(1) algorithm actually allows +for. In this example, @acronym{LALR}(2) would suffice, but also some cases +that are not @acronym{LALR}(@math{k}) for any @math{k} can be handled this way. + +In general, a @acronym{GLR} parser can take quadratic or cubic worst-case time, +and the current Bison parser even takes exponential time and space +for some grammars. In practice, this rarely happens, and for many +grammars it is possible to prove that it cannot happen. +The present example contains only one conflict between two +rules, and the type-declaration context containing the conflict +cannot be nested. So the number of +branches that can exist at any time is limited by the constant 2, +and the parsing time is still linear. + +Here is a Bison grammar corresponding to the example above. It +parses a vastly simplified form of Pascal type declarations. -@item -Write error-reporting routines. -@end enumerate +@example +%token TYPE DOTDOT ID -To turn this source code as written into a runnable program, you -must follow these steps: +@group +%left '+' '-' +%left '*' '/' +@end group -@enumerate -@item -Run Bison on the grammar to produce the parser. +%% -@item -Compile the code output by Bison, as well as any other source files. +@group +type_decl : TYPE ID '=' type ';' + ; +@end group -@item -Link the object files to produce the finished product. -@end enumerate +@group +type : '(' id_list ')' + | expr DOTDOT expr + ; +@end group -@node Grammar Layout, , Stages, Concepts -@section The Overall Layout of a Bison Grammar -@cindex grammar file -@cindex file format -@cindex format of grammar file -@cindex layout of Bison grammar +@group +id_list : ID + | id_list ',' ID + ; +@end group -The input file for the Bison utility is a @dfn{Bison grammar file}. The -general form of a Bison grammar file is as follows: +@group +expr : '(' expr ')' + | expr '+' expr + | expr '-' expr + | expr '*' expr + | expr '/' expr + | ID + ; +@end group +@end example + +When used as a normal @acronym{LALR}(1) grammar, Bison correctly complains +about one reduce/reduce conflict. In the conflicting situation the +parser chooses one of the alternatives, arbitrarily the one +declared first. Therefore the following correct input is not +recognized: + +@example +type t = (a) .. b; +@end example + +The parser can be turned into a @acronym{GLR} parser, while also telling Bison +to be silent about the one known reduce/reduce conflict, by +adding these two declarations to the Bison input file (before the first +@samp{%%}): + +@example +%glr-parser +%expect-rr 1 +@end example + +@noindent +No change in the grammar itself is required. Now the +parser recognizes all valid declarations, according to the +limited syntax above, transparently. In fact, the user does not even +notice when the parser splits. + +So here we have a case where we can use the benefits of @acronym{GLR}, almost +without disadvantages. Even in simple cases like this, however, there +are at least two potential problems to beware. +First, always analyze the conflicts reported by +Bison to make sure that @acronym{GLR} splitting is only done where it is +intended. A @acronym{GLR} parser splitting inadvertently may cause +problems less obvious than an @acronym{LALR} parser statically choosing the +wrong alternative in a conflict. +Second, consider interactions with the lexer (@pxref{Semantic Tokens}) +with great care. Since a split parser consumes tokens +without performing any actions during the split, the lexer cannot +obtain information via parser actions. Some cases of +lexer interactions can be eliminated by using @acronym{GLR} to +shift the complications from the lexer to the parser. You must check +the remaining cases for correctness. + +In our example, it would be safe for the lexer to return tokens +based on their current meanings in some symbol table, because no new +symbols are defined in the middle of a type declaration. Though it +is possible for a parser to define the enumeration +constants as they are parsed, before the type declaration is +completed, it actually makes no difference since they cannot be used +within the same enumerated type declaration. + +@node Merging GLR Parses +@subsection Using @acronym{GLR} to Resolve Ambiguities +@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsing, ambiguous grammars +@cindex generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) parsing, ambiguous grammars +@findex %dprec +@findex %merge +@cindex conflicts +@cindex reduce/reduce conflicts + +Let's consider an example, vastly simplified from a C++ grammar. @example %@{ -@var{C declarations} + #include + #define YYSTYPE char const * + int yylex (void); + void yyerror (char const *); %@} -@var{Bison declarations} +%token TYPENAME ID + +%right '=' +%left '+' + +%glr-parser %% -@var{Grammar rules} -%% -@var{Additional C code} + +prog : + | prog stmt @{ printf ("\n"); @} + ; + +stmt : expr ';' %dprec 1 + | decl %dprec 2 + ; + +expr : ID @{ printf ("%s ", $$); @} + | TYPENAME '(' expr ')' + @{ printf ("%s ", $1); @} + | expr '+' expr @{ printf ("+ "); @} + | expr '=' expr @{ printf ("= "); @} + ; + +decl : TYPENAME declarator ';' + @{ printf ("%s ", $1); @} + | TYPENAME declarator '=' expr ';' + @{ printf ("%s ", $1); @} + ; + +declarator : ID @{ printf ("\"%s\" ", $1); @} + | '(' declarator ')' + ; @end example @noindent -The @samp{%%}, @samp{%@{} and @samp{%@}} are punctuation that appears -in every Bison grammar file to separate the sections. +This models a problematic part of the C++ grammar---the ambiguity between +certain declarations and statements. For example, -The C declarations may define types and variables used in the actions. -You can also use preprocessor commands to define macros used there, and use -@code{#include} to include header files that do any of these things. +@example +T (x) = y+z; +@end example -The Bison declarations declare the names of the terminal and nonterminal -symbols, and may also describe operator precedence and the data types of -semantic values of various symbols. +@noindent +parses as either an @code{expr} or a @code{stmt} +(assuming that @samp{T} is recognized as a @code{TYPENAME} and +@samp{x} as an @code{ID}). +Bison detects this as a reduce/reduce conflict between the rules +@code{expr : ID} and @code{declarator : ID}, which it cannot resolve at the +time it encounters @code{x} in the example above. Since this is a +@acronym{GLR} parser, it therefore splits the problem into two parses, one for +each choice of resolving the reduce/reduce conflict. +Unlike the example from the previous section (@pxref{Simple GLR Parsers}), +however, neither of these parses ``dies,'' because the grammar as it stands is +ambiguous. One of the parsers eventually reduces @code{stmt : expr ';'} and +the other reduces @code{stmt : decl}, after which both parsers are in an +identical state: they've seen @samp{prog stmt} and have the same unprocessed +input remaining. We say that these parses have @dfn{merged.} + +At this point, the @acronym{GLR} parser requires a specification in the +grammar of how to choose between the competing parses. +In the example above, the two @code{%dprec} +declarations specify that Bison is to give precedence +to the parse that interprets the example as a +@code{decl}, which implies that @code{x} is a declarator. +The parser therefore prints -The grammar rules define how to construct each nonterminal symbol from its -parts. +@example +"x" y z + T +@end example -The additional C code can contain any C code you want to use. Often the -definition of the lexical analyzer @code{yylex} goes here, plus subroutines -called by the actions in the grammar rules. In a simple program, all the -rest of the program can go here. +The @code{%dprec} declarations only come into play when more than one +parse survives. Consider a different input string for this parser: -@node Examples, Grammar File, Concepts, Top -@chapter Examples -@cindex simple examples -@cindex examples, simple +@example +T (x) + y; +@end example + +@noindent +This is another example of using @acronym{GLR} to parse an unambiguous +construct, as shown in the previous section (@pxref{Simple GLR Parsers}). +Here, there is no ambiguity (this cannot be parsed as a declaration). +However, at the time the Bison parser encounters @code{x}, it does not +have enough information to resolve the reduce/reduce conflict (again, +between @code{x} as an @code{expr} or a @code{declarator}). In this +case, no precedence declaration is used. Again, the parser splits +into two, one assuming that @code{x} is an @code{expr}, and the other +assuming @code{x} is a @code{declarator}. The second of these parsers +then vanishes when it sees @code{+}, and the parser prints + +@example +x T y + +@end example + +Suppose that instead of resolving the ambiguity, you wanted to see all +the possibilities. For this purpose, you must merge the semantic +actions of the two possible parsers, rather than choosing one over the +other. To do so, you could change the declaration of @code{stmt} as +follows: + +@example +stmt : expr ';' %merge + | decl %merge + ; +@end example + +@noindent +and define the @code{stmtMerge} function as: + +@example +static YYSTYPE +stmtMerge (YYSTYPE x0, YYSTYPE x1) +@{ + printf (" "); + return ""; +@} +@end example + +@noindent +with an accompanying forward declaration +in the C declarations at the beginning of the file: + +@example +%@{ + #define YYSTYPE char const * + static YYSTYPE stmtMerge (YYSTYPE x0, YYSTYPE x1); +%@} +@end example + +@noindent +With these declarations, the resulting parser parses the first example +as both an @code{expr} and a @code{decl}, and prints + +@example +"x" y z + T x T y z + = +@end example + +Bison requires that all of the +productions that participate in any particular merge have identical +@samp{%merge} clauses. Otherwise, the ambiguity would be unresolvable, +and the parser will report an error during any parse that results in +the offending merge. + +@node Compiler Requirements +@subsection Considerations when Compiling @acronym{GLR} Parsers +@cindex @code{inline} +@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsers and @code{inline} + +The @acronym{GLR} parsers require a compiler for @acronym{ISO} C89 or +later. In addition, they use the @code{inline} keyword, which is not +C89, but is C99 and is a common extension in pre-C99 compilers. It is +up to the user of these parsers to handle +portability issues. For instance, if using Autoconf and the Autoconf +macro @code{AC_C_INLINE}, a mere + +@example +%@{ + #include +%@} +@end example + +@noindent +will suffice. Otherwise, we suggest + +@example +%@{ + #if __STDC_VERSION__ < 199901 && ! defined __GNUC__ && ! defined inline + #define inline + #endif +%@} +@end example + +@node Locations Overview +@section Locations +@cindex location +@cindex textual location +@cindex location, textual + +Many applications, like interpreters or compilers, have to produce verbose +and useful error messages. To achieve this, one must be able to keep track of +the @dfn{textual location}, or @dfn{location}, of each syntactic construct. +Bison provides a mechanism for handling these locations. + +Each token has a semantic value. In a similar fashion, each token has an +associated location, but the type of locations is the same for all tokens and +groupings. Moreover, the output parser is equipped with a default data +structure for storing locations (@pxref{Locations}, for more details). + +Like semantic values, locations can be reached in actions using a dedicated +set of constructs. In the example above, the location of the whole grouping +is @code{@@$}, while the locations of the subexpressions are @code{@@1} and +@code{@@3}. + +When a rule is matched, a default action is used to compute the semantic value +of its left hand side (@pxref{Actions}). In the same way, another default +action is used for locations. However, the action for locations is general +enough for most cases, meaning there is usually no need to describe for each +rule how @code{@@$} should be formed. When building a new location for a given +grouping, the default behavior of the output parser is to take the beginning +of the first symbol, and the end of the last symbol. + +@node Bison Parser +@section Bison Output: the Parser File +@cindex Bison parser +@cindex Bison utility +@cindex lexical analyzer, purpose +@cindex parser + +When you run Bison, you give it a Bison grammar file as input. The output +is a C source file that parses the language described by the grammar. +This file is called a @dfn{Bison parser}. Keep in mind that the Bison +utility and the Bison parser are two distinct programs: the Bison utility +is a program whose output is the Bison parser that becomes part of your +program. + +The job of the Bison parser is to group tokens into groupings according to +the grammar rules---for example, to build identifiers and operators into +expressions. As it does this, it runs the actions for the grammar rules it +uses. + +The tokens come from a function called the @dfn{lexical analyzer} that +you must supply in some fashion (such as by writing it in C). The Bison +parser calls the lexical analyzer each time it wants a new token. It +doesn't know what is ``inside'' the tokens (though their semantic values +may reflect this). Typically the lexical analyzer makes the tokens by +parsing characters of text, but Bison does not depend on this. +@xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}. + +The Bison parser file is C code which defines a function named +@code{yyparse} which implements that grammar. This function does not make +a complete C program: you must supply some additional functions. One is +the lexical analyzer. Another is an error-reporting function which the +parser calls to report an error. In addition, a complete C program must +start with a function called @code{main}; you have to provide this, and +arrange for it to call @code{yyparse} or the parser will never run. +@xref{Interface, ,Parser C-Language Interface}. + +Aside from the token type names and the symbols in the actions you +write, all symbols defined in the Bison parser file itself +begin with @samp{yy} or @samp{YY}. This includes interface functions +such as the lexical analyzer function @code{yylex}, the error reporting +function @code{yyerror} and the parser function @code{yyparse} itself. +This also includes numerous identifiers used for internal purposes. +Therefore, you should avoid using C identifiers starting with @samp{yy} +or @samp{YY} in the Bison grammar file except for the ones defined in +this manual. Also, you should avoid using the C identifiers +@samp{malloc} and @samp{free} for anything other than their usual +meanings. + +In some cases the Bison parser file includes system headers, and in +those cases your code should respect the identifiers reserved by those +headers. On some non-@acronym{GNU} hosts, @code{}, @code{}, +@code{}, and @code{} are included as needed to +declare memory allocators and related types. @code{} is +included if message translation is in use +(@pxref{Internationalization}). Other system headers may +be included if you define @code{YYDEBUG} to a nonzero value +(@pxref{Tracing, ,Tracing Your Parser}). + +@node Stages +@section Stages in Using Bison +@cindex stages in using Bison +@cindex using Bison + +The actual language-design process using Bison, from grammar specification +to a working compiler or interpreter, has these parts: + +@enumerate +@item +Formally specify the grammar in a form recognized by Bison +(@pxref{Grammar File, ,Bison Grammar Files}). For each grammatical rule +in the language, describe the action that is to be taken when an +instance of that rule is recognized. The action is described by a +sequence of C statements. + +@item +Write a lexical analyzer to process input and pass tokens to the parser. +The lexical analyzer may be written by hand in C (@pxref{Lexical, ,The +Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}). It could also be produced +using Lex, but the use of Lex is not discussed in this manual. + +@item +Write a controlling function that calls the Bison-produced parser. + +@item +Write error-reporting routines. +@end enumerate + +To turn this source code as written into a runnable program, you +must follow these steps: + +@enumerate +@item +Run Bison on the grammar to produce the parser. + +@item +Compile the code output by Bison, as well as any other source files. + +@item +Link the object files to produce the finished product. +@end enumerate + +@node Grammar Layout +@section The Overall Layout of a Bison Grammar +@cindex grammar file +@cindex file format +@cindex format of grammar file +@cindex layout of Bison grammar + +The input file for the Bison utility is a @dfn{Bison grammar file}. The +general form of a Bison grammar file is as follows: + +@example +%@{ +@var{Prologue} +%@} + +@var{Bison declarations} + +%% +@var{Grammar rules} +%% +@var{Epilogue} +@end example + +@noindent +The @samp{%%}, @samp{%@{} and @samp{%@}} are punctuation that appears +in every Bison grammar file to separate the sections. + +The prologue may define types and variables used in the actions. You can +also use preprocessor commands to define macros used there, and use +@code{#include} to include header files that do any of these things. +You need to declare the lexical analyzer @code{yylex} and the error +printer @code{yyerror} here, along with any other global identifiers +used by the actions in the grammar rules. + +The Bison declarations declare the names of the terminal and nonterminal +symbols, and may also describe operator precedence and the data types of +semantic values of various symbols. + +The grammar rules define how to construct each nonterminal symbol from its +parts. + +The epilogue can contain any code you want to use. Often the +definitions of functions declared in the prologue go here. In a +simple program, all the rest of the program can go here. + +@node Examples +@chapter Examples +@cindex simple examples +@cindex examples, simple Now we show and explain three sample programs written using Bison: a reverse polish notation calculator, an algebraic (infix) notation @@ -1145,12 +1324,13 @@ to try them. * Infix Calc:: Infix (algebraic) notation calculator. Operator precedence is introduced. * Simple Error Recovery:: Continuing after syntax errors. +* Location Tracking Calc:: Demonstrating the use of @@@var{n} and @@$. * Multi-function Calc:: Calculator with memory and trig functions. It uses multiple data-types for semantic values. * Exercises:: Ideas for improving the multi-function calculator. @end menu -@node RPN Calc, Infix Calc, , Examples +@node RPN Calc @section Reverse Polish Notation Calculator @cindex reverse polish notation @cindex polish notation calculator @@ -1166,7 +1346,7 @@ The source code for this calculator is named @file{rpcalc.y}. The @samp{.y} extension is a convention used for Bison input files. @menu -* Decls: Rpcalc Decls. Bison and C declarations for rpcalc. +* Decls: Rpcalc Decls. Prologue (declarations) for rpcalc. * Rules: Rpcalc Rules. Grammar Rules for rpcalc, with explanation. * Lexer: Rpcalc Lexer. The lexical analyzer. * Main: Rpcalc Main. The controlling function. @@ -1175,47 +1355,57 @@ The source code for this calculator is named @file{rpcalc.y}. The * Comp: Rpcalc Compile. Run the C compiler on the output code. @end menu -@node Rpcalc Decls, Rpcalc Rules, , RPN Calc +@node Rpcalc Decls @subsection Declarations for @code{rpcalc} Here are the C and Bison declarations for the reverse polish notation calculator. As in C, comments are placed between @samp{/*@dots{}*/}. @example -/* Reverse polish notation calculator. */ +/* Reverse polish notation calculator. */ %@{ -#define YYSTYPE double -#include + #define YYSTYPE double + #include + int yylex (void); + void yyerror (char const *); %@} %token NUM -%% /* Grammar rules and actions follow */ +%% /* Grammar rules and actions follow. */ @end example -The C declarations section (@pxref{C Declarations, ,The C Declarations Section}) contains two -preprocessor directives. +The declarations section (@pxref{Prologue, , The prologue}) contains two +preprocessor directives and two forward declarations. The @code{#define} directive defines the macro @code{YYSTYPE}, thus -specifying the C data type for semantic values of both tokens and groupings -(@pxref{Value Type, ,Data Types of Semantic Values}). The Bison parser will use whatever type -@code{YYSTYPE} is defined as; if you don't define it, @code{int} is the -default. Because we specify @code{double}, each token and each expression -has an associated value, which is a floating point number. +specifying the C data type for semantic values of both tokens and +groupings (@pxref{Value Type, ,Data Types of Semantic Values}). The +Bison parser will use whatever type @code{YYSTYPE} is defined as; if you +don't define it, @code{int} is the default. Because we specify +@code{double}, each token and each expression has an associated value, +which is a floating point number. The @code{#include} directive is used to declare the exponentiation function @code{pow}. -The second section, Bison declarations, provides information to Bison about -the token types (@pxref{Bison Declarations, ,The Bison Declarations Section}). Each terminal symbol that is -not a single-character literal must be declared here. (Single-character +The forward declarations for @code{yylex} and @code{yyerror} are +needed because the C language requires that functions be declared +before they are used. These functions will be defined in the +epilogue, but the parser calls them so they must be declared in the +prologue. + +The second section, Bison declarations, provides information to Bison +about the token types (@pxref{Bison Declarations, ,The Bison +Declarations Section}). Each terminal symbol that is not a +single-character literal must be declared here. (Single-character literals normally don't need to be declared.) In this example, all the arithmetic operators are designated by single-character literals, so the only terminal symbol that needs to be declared is @code{NUM}, the token type for numeric constants. -@node Rpcalc Rules, Rpcalc Lexer, Rpcalc Decls, RPN Calc +@node Rpcalc Rules @subsection Grammar Rules for @code{rpcalc} Here are the grammar rules for the reverse polish notation calculator. @@ -1226,18 +1416,18 @@ input: /* empty */ ; line: '\n' - | exp '\n' @{ printf ("\t%.10g\n", $1); @} + | exp '\n' @{ printf ("\t%.10g\n", $1); @} ; -exp: NUM @{ $$ = $1; @} - | exp exp '+' @{ $$ = $1 + $2; @} - | exp exp '-' @{ $$ = $1 - $2; @} - | exp exp '*' @{ $$ = $1 * $2; @} - | exp exp '/' @{ $$ = $1 / $2; @} - /* Exponentiation */ - | exp exp '^' @{ $$ = pow ($1, $2); @} - /* Unary minus */ - | exp 'n' @{ $$ = -$1; @} +exp: NUM @{ $$ = $1; @} + | exp exp '+' @{ $$ = $1 + $2; @} + | exp exp '-' @{ $$ = $1 - $2; @} + | exp exp '*' @{ $$ = $1 * $2; @} + | exp exp '/' @{ $$ = $1 / $2; @} + /* Exponentiation */ + | exp exp '^' @{ $$ = pow ($1, $2); @} + /* Unary minus */ + | exp 'n' @{ $$ = -$1; @} ; %% @end example @@ -1266,7 +1456,7 @@ rule are referred to as @code{$1}, @code{$2}, and so on. * Rpcalc Expr:: @end menu -@node Rpcalc Input, Rpcalc Line, , Rpcalc Rules +@node Rpcalc Input @subsubsection Explanation of @code{input} Consider the definition of @code{input}: @@ -1298,9 +1488,9 @@ more times. The parser function @code{yyparse} continues to process input until a grammatical error is seen or the lexical analyzer says there are no more -input tokens; we will arrange for the latter to happen at end of file. +input tokens; we will arrange for the latter to happen at end-of-input. -@node Rpcalc Line, Rpcalc Expr, Rpcalc Input, Rpcalc Rules +@node Rpcalc Line @subsubsection Explanation of @code{line} Now consider the definition of @code{line}: @@ -1325,7 +1515,7 @@ uninitialized (its value will be unpredictable). This would be a bug if that value were ever used, but we don't use it: once rpcalc has printed the value of the user's input line, that value is no longer needed. -@node Rpcalc Expr, , Rpcalc Line, Rpcalc Rules +@node Rpcalc Expr @subsubsection Explanation of @code{expr} The @code{exp} grouping has several rules, one for each kind of expression. @@ -1365,11 +1555,11 @@ action, Bison by default copies the value of @code{$1} into @code{$$}. This is what happens in the first rule (the one that uses @code{NUM}). The formatting shown here is the recommended convention, but Bison does -not require it. You can add or change whitespace as much as you wish. +not require it. You can add or change white space as much as you wish. For example, this: @example -exp : NUM | exp exp '+' @{$$ = $1 + $2; @} | @dots{} +exp : NUM | exp exp '+' @{$$ = $1 + $2; @} | @dots{} ; @end example @noindent @@ -1379,21 +1569,24 @@ means the same thing as this: exp: NUM | exp exp '+' @{ $$ = $1 + $2; @} | @dots{} +; @end example @noindent The latter, however, is much more readable. -@node Rpcalc Lexer, Rpcalc Main, Rpcalc Rules, RPN Calc +@node Rpcalc Lexer @subsection The @code{rpcalc} Lexical Analyzer @cindex writing a lexical analyzer @cindex lexical analyzer, writing -The lexical analyzer's job is low-level parsing: converting characters or -sequences of characters into tokens. The Bison parser gets its tokens by -calling the lexical analyzer. @xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}. +The lexical analyzer's job is low-level parsing: converting characters +or sequences of characters into tokens. The Bison parser gets its +tokens by calling the lexical analyzer. @xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical +Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}. -Only a simple lexical analyzer is needed for the RPN calculator. This +Only a simple lexical analyzer is needed for the @acronym{RPN} +calculator. This lexical analyzer skips blanks and tabs, then reads in numbers as @code{double} and returns them as @code{NUM} tokens. Any other character that isn't part of a number is a separate token. Note that the token-code @@ -1403,29 +1596,29 @@ The return value of the lexical analyzer function is a numeric code which represents a token type. The same text used in Bison rules to stand for this token type is also a C expression for the numeric code for the type. This works in two ways. If the token type is a character literal, then its -numeric code is the ASCII code for that character; you can use the same +numeric code is that of the character; you can use the same character literal in the lexical analyzer to express the number. If the token type is an identifier, that identifier is defined by Bison as a C macro whose definition is the appropriate number. In this example, therefore, @code{NUM} becomes a macro for @code{yylex} to use. -The semantic value of the token (if it has one) is stored into the global -variable @code{yylval}, which is where the Bison parser will look for it. -(The C data type of @code{yylval} is @code{YYSTYPE}, which was defined -at the beginning of the grammar; @pxref{Rpcalc Decls, ,Declarations for @code{rpcalc}}.) +The semantic value of the token (if it has one) is stored into the +global variable @code{yylval}, which is where the Bison parser will look +for it. (The C data type of @code{yylval} is @code{YYSTYPE}, which was +defined at the beginning of the grammar; @pxref{Rpcalc Decls, +,Declarations for @code{rpcalc}}.) -A token type code of zero is returned if the end-of-file is encountered. -(Bison recognizes any nonpositive value as indicating the end of the -input.) +A token type code of zero is returned if the end-of-input is encountered. +(Bison recognizes any nonpositive value as indicating end-of-input.) Here is the code for the lexical analyzer: @example @group -/* Lexical analyzer returns a double floating point - number on the stack and the token NUM, or the ASCII - character read if not a number. Skips all blanks - and tabs, returns 0 for EOF. */ +/* The lexical analyzer returns a double floating point + number on the stack and the token NUM, or the numeric code + of the character read if not a number. It skips all blanks + and tabs, and returns 0 for end-of-input. */ #include @end group @@ -1436,12 +1629,12 @@ yylex (void) @{ int c; - /* skip white space */ + /* Skip white space. */ while ((c = getchar ()) == ' ' || c == '\t') ; @end group @group - /* process numbers */ + /* Process numbers. */ if (c == '.' || isdigit (c)) @{ ungetc (c, stdin); @@ -1450,16 +1643,16 @@ yylex (void) @} @end group @group - /* return end-of-file */ + /* Return end-of-input. */ if (c == EOF) return 0; - /* return single chars */ + /* Return a single char. */ return c; @} @end group @end example -@node Rpcalc Main, Rpcalc Error, Rpcalc Lexer, RPN Calc +@node Rpcalc Main @subsection The Controlling Function @cindex controlling function @cindex main function in simple example @@ -1478,13 +1671,13 @@ main (void) @end group @end example -@node Rpcalc Error, Rpcalc Gen, Rpcalc Main, RPN Calc +@node Rpcalc Error @subsection The Error Reporting Routine @cindex error reporting routine When @code{yyparse} detects a syntax error, it calls the error reporting function @code{yyerror} to print an error message (usually but not -always @code{"parse error"}). It is up to the programmer to supply +always @code{"syntax error"}). It is up to the programmer to supply @code{yyerror} (@pxref{Interface, ,Parser C-Language Interface}), so here is the definition we will use: @@ -1492,10 +1685,11 @@ here is the definition we will use: @group #include +/* Called by yyparse on error. */ void -yyerror (const char *s) /* Called by yyparse on error */ +yyerror (char const *s) @{ - printf ("%s\n", s); + fprintf (stderr, "%s\n", s); @} @end group @end example @@ -1507,7 +1701,7 @@ have not written any error rules in this example, so any invalid input will cause the calculator program to exit. This is not clean behavior for a real calculator, but it is adequate for the first example. -@node Rpcalc Gen, Rpcalc Compile, Rpcalc Error, RPN Calc +@node Rpcalc Gen @subsection Running Bison to Make the Parser @cindex running Bison (introduction) @@ -1515,8 +1709,8 @@ Before running Bison to produce a parser, we need to decide how to arrange all the source code in one or more source files. For such a simple example, the easiest thing is to put everything in one file. The definitions of @code{yylex}, @code{yyerror} and @code{main} go at the -end, in the ``additional C code'' section of the file (@pxref{Grammar -Layout, ,The Overall Layout of a Bison Grammar}). +end, in the epilogue of the file +(@pxref{Grammar Layout, ,The Overall Layout of a Bison Grammar}). For a large project, you would probably have several source files, and use @code{make} to arrange to recompile them. @@ -1525,18 +1719,18 @@ With all the source in a single file, you use the following command to convert it into a parser file: @example -bison @var{file_name}.y +bison @var{file}.y @end example @noindent In this example the file was called @file{rpcalc.y} (for ``Reverse Polish -CALCulator''). Bison produces a file named @file{@var{file_name}.tab.c}, -removing the @samp{.y} from the original file name. The file output by +@sc{calc}ulator''). Bison produces a file named @file{@var{file}.tab.c}, +removing the @samp{.y} from the original file name. The file output by Bison contains the source code for @code{yyparse}. The additional functions in the input file (@code{yylex}, @code{yyerror} and @code{main}) are copied verbatim to the output. -@node Rpcalc Compile, , Rpcalc Gen, RPN Calc +@node Rpcalc Compile @subsection Compiling the Parser File @cindex compiling the parser @@ -1545,19 +1739,19 @@ Here is how to compile and run the parser file: @example @group # @r{List files in current directory.} -% ls +$ @kbd{ls} rpcalc.tab.c rpcalc.y @end group @group # @r{Compile the Bison parser.} # @r{@samp{-lm} tells compiler to search math library for @code{pow}.} -% cc rpcalc.tab.c -lm -o rpcalc +$ @kbd{cc -lm -o rpcalc rpcalc.tab.c} @end group @group # @r{List files again.} -% ls +$ @kbd{ls} rpcalc rpcalc.tab.c rpcalc.y @end group @end example @@ -1566,22 +1760,22 @@ The file @file{rpcalc} now contains the executable code. Here is an example session using @code{rpcalc}. @example -% rpcalc -4 9 + +$ @kbd{rpcalc} +@kbd{4 9 +} 13 -3 7 + 3 4 5 *+- +@kbd{3 7 + 3 4 5 *+-} -13 -3 7 + 3 4 5 * + - n @r{Note the unary minus, @samp{n}} +@kbd{3 7 + 3 4 5 * + - n} @r{Note the unary minus, @samp{n}} 13 -5 6 / 4 n + +@kbd{5 6 / 4 n +} -3.166666667 -3 4 ^ @r{Exponentiation} +@kbd{3 4 ^} @r{Exponentiation} 81 -^D @r{End-of-file indicator} -% +@kbd{^D} @r{End-of-file indicator} +$ @end example -@node Infix Calc, Simple Error Recovery, RPN Calc, Examples +@node Infix Calc @section Infix Notation Calculator: @code{calc} @cindex infix notation calculator @cindex @code{calc} @@ -1593,23 +1787,25 @@ parentheses nested to arbitrary depth. Here is the Bison code for @file{calc.y}, an infix desk-top calculator. @example -/* Infix notation calculator--calc */ +/* Infix notation calculator. */ %@{ -#define YYSTYPE double -#include + #define YYSTYPE double + #include + #include + int yylex (void); + void yyerror (char const *); %@} -/* BISON Declarations */ +/* Bison declarations. */ %token NUM %left '-' '+' %left '*' '/' %left NEG /* negation--unary minus */ -%right '^' /* exponentiation */ +%right '^' /* exponentiation */ -/* Grammar follows */ -%% -input: /* empty string */ +%% /* The grammar follows. */ +input: /* empty */ | input line ; @@ -1647,27 +1843,29 @@ Operator precedence is determined by the line ordering of the declarations; the higher the line number of the declaration (lower on the page or screen), the higher the precedence. Hence, exponentiation has the highest precedence, unary minus (@code{NEG}) is next, followed -by @samp{*} and @samp{/}, and so on. @xref{Precedence, ,Operator Precedence}. +by @samp{*} and @samp{/}, and so on. @xref{Precedence, ,Operator +Precedence}. -The other important new feature is the @code{%prec} in the grammar section -for the unary minus operator. The @code{%prec} simply instructs Bison that -the rule @samp{| '-' exp} has the same precedence as @code{NEG}---in this -case the next-to-highest. @xref{Contextual Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}. +The other important new feature is the @code{%prec} in the grammar +section for the unary minus operator. The @code{%prec} simply instructs +Bison that the rule @samp{| '-' exp} has the same precedence as +@code{NEG}---in this case the next-to-highest. @xref{Contextual +Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}. Here is a sample run of @file{calc.y}: @need 500 @example -% calc -4 + 4.5 - (34/(8*3+-3)) +$ @kbd{calc} +@kbd{4 + 4.5 - (34/(8*3+-3))} 6.880952381 --56 + 2 +@kbd{-56 + 2} -54 -3 ^ 2 +@kbd{3 ^ 2} 9 @end example -@node Simple Error Recovery, Multi-function Calc, Infix Calc, Examples +@node Simple Error Recovery @section Simple Error Recovery @cindex error recovery, simple @@ -1692,14 +1890,14 @@ line: '\n' @end example This addition to the grammar allows for simple error recovery in the -event of a parse error. If an expression that cannot be evaluated is +event of a syntax error. If an expression that cannot be evaluated is read, the error will be recognized by the third rule for @code{line}, and parsing will continue. (The @code{yyerror} function is still called upon to print its message as well.) The action executes the statement @code{yyerrok}, a macro defined automatically by Bison; its meaning is that error recovery is complete (@pxref{Error Recovery}). Note the difference between @code{yyerrok} and @code{yyerror}; neither one is a -misprint.@refill +misprint. This form of error recovery deals with syntax errors. There are other kinds of errors; for example, division by zero, which raises an exception @@ -1709,144 +1907,360 @@ input lines; it would also have to discard the rest of the current line of input. We won't discuss this issue further because it is not specific to Bison programs. -@node Multi-function Calc, Exercises, Simple Error Recovery, Examples -@section Multi-Function Calculator: @code{mfcalc} -@cindex multi-function calculator -@cindex @code{mfcalc} -@cindex calculator, multi-function - -Now that the basics of Bison have been discussed, it is time to move on to -a more advanced problem. The above calculators provided only five -functions, @samp{+}, @samp{-}, @samp{*}, @samp{/} and @samp{^}. It would -be nice to have a calculator that provides other mathematical functions such -as @code{sin}, @code{cos}, etc. - -It is easy to add new operators to the infix calculator as long as they are -only single-character literals. The lexical analyzer @code{yylex} passes -back all nonnumber characters as tokens, so new grammar rules suffice for -adding a new operator. But we want something more flexible: built-in -functions whose syntax has this form: - -@example -@var{function_name} (@var{argument}) -@end example - -@noindent -At the same time, we will add memory to the calculator, by allowing you -to create named variables, store values in them, and use them later. -Here is a sample session with the multi-function calculator: - -@example -% mfcalc -pi = 3.141592653589 -3.1415926536 -sin(pi) -0.0000000000 -alpha = beta1 = 2.3 -2.3000000000 -alpha -2.3000000000 -ln(alpha) -0.8329091229 -exp(ln(beta1)) -2.3000000000 -% -@end example +@node Location Tracking Calc +@section Location Tracking Calculator: @code{ltcalc} +@cindex location tracking calculator +@cindex @code{ltcalc} +@cindex calculator, location tracking -Note that multiple assignment and nested function calls are permitted. +This example extends the infix notation calculator with location +tracking. This feature will be used to improve the error messages. For +the sake of clarity, this example is a simple integer calculator, since +most of the work needed to use locations will be done in the lexical +analyzer. @menu -* Decl: Mfcalc Decl. Bison declarations for multi-function calculator. -* Rules: Mfcalc Rules. Grammar rules for the calculator. -* Symtab: Mfcalc Symtab. Symbol table management subroutines. +* Decls: Ltcalc Decls. Bison and C declarations for ltcalc. +* Rules: Ltcalc Rules. Grammar rules for ltcalc, with explanations. +* Lexer: Ltcalc Lexer. The lexical analyzer. @end menu -@node Mfcalc Decl, Mfcalc Rules, , Multi-function Calc -@subsection Declarations for @code{mfcalc} +@node Ltcalc Decls +@subsection Declarations for @code{ltcalc} -Here are the C and Bison declarations for the multi-function calculator. +The C and Bison declarations for the location tracking calculator are +the same as the declarations for the infix notation calculator. + +@example +/* Location tracking calculator. */ -@smallexample %@{ -#include /* For math functions, cos(), sin(), etc. */ -#include "calc.h" /* Contains definition of `symrec' */ + #define YYSTYPE int + #include + int yylex (void); + void yyerror (char const *); %@} -%union @{ -double val; /* For returning numbers. */ -symrec *tptr; /* For returning symbol-table pointers */ -@} -%token NUM /* Simple double precision number */ -%token VAR FNCT /* Variable and Function */ -%type exp +/* Bison declarations. */ +%token NUM -%right '=' %left '-' '+' %left '*' '/' -%left NEG /* Negation--unary minus */ -%right '^' /* Exponentiation */ - -/* Grammar follows */ - -%% -@end smallexample - -The above grammar introduces only two new features of the Bison language. -These features allow semantic values to have various data types -(@pxref{Multiple Types, ,More Than One Value Type}). +%left NEG +%right '^' -The @code{%union} declaration specifies the entire list of possible types; -this is instead of defining @code{YYSTYPE}. The allowable types are now -double-floats (for @code{exp} and @code{NUM}) and pointers to entries in -the symbol table. @xref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}. +%% /* The grammar follows. */ +@end example -Since values can now have various types, it is necessary to associate a -type with each grammar symbol whose semantic value is used. These symbols -are @code{NUM}, @code{VAR}, @code{FNCT}, and @code{exp}. Their -declarations are augmented with information about their data type (placed -between angle brackets). +@noindent +Note there are no declarations specific to locations. Defining a data +type for storing locations is not needed: we will use the type provided +by default (@pxref{Location Type, ,Data Types of Locations}), which is a +four member structure with the following integer fields: +@code{first_line}, @code{first_column}, @code{last_line} and +@code{last_column}. -The Bison construct @code{%type} is used for declaring nonterminal symbols, -just as @code{%token} is used for declaring token types. We have not used -@code{%type} before because nonterminal symbols are normally declared -implicitly by the rules that define them. But @code{exp} must be declared -explicitly so we can specify its value type. @xref{Type Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}. +@node Ltcalc Rules +@subsection Grammar Rules for @code{ltcalc} -@node Mfcalc Rules, Mfcalc Symtab, Mfcalc Decl, Multi-function Calc -@subsection Grammar Rules for @code{mfcalc} +Whether handling locations or not has no effect on the syntax of your +language. Therefore, grammar rules for this example will be very close +to those of the previous example: we will only modify them to benefit +from the new information. -Here are the grammar rules for the multi-function calculator. -Most of them are copied directly from @code{calc}; three rules, -those which mention @code{VAR} or @code{FNCT}, are new. +Here, we will use locations to report divisions by zero, and locate the +wrong expressions or subexpressions. -@smallexample -input: /* empty */ +@example +@group +input : /* empty */ | input line ; +@end group -line: - '\n' - | exp '\n' @{ printf ("\t%.10g\n", $1); @} - | error '\n' @{ yyerrok; @} +@group +line : '\n' + | exp '\n' @{ printf ("%d\n", $1); @} ; +@end group -exp: NUM @{ $$ = $1; @} - | VAR @{ $$ = $1->value.var; @} - | VAR '=' exp @{ $$ = $3; $1->value.var = $3; @} - | FNCT '(' exp ')' @{ $$ = (*($1->value.fnctptr))($3); @} - | exp '+' exp @{ $$ = $1 + $3; @} - | exp '-' exp @{ $$ = $1 - $3; @} - | exp '*' exp @{ $$ = $1 * $3; @} - | exp '/' exp @{ $$ = $1 / $3; @} - | '-' exp %prec NEG @{ $$ = -$2; @} +@group +exp : NUM @{ $$ = $1; @} + | exp '+' exp @{ $$ = $1 + $3; @} + | exp '-' exp @{ $$ = $1 - $3; @} + | exp '*' exp @{ $$ = $1 * $3; @} +@end group +@group + | exp '/' exp + @{ + if ($3) + $$ = $1 / $3; + else + @{ + $$ = 1; + fprintf (stderr, "%d.%d-%d.%d: division by zero", + @@3.first_line, @@3.first_column, + @@3.last_line, @@3.last_column); + @} + @} +@end group +@group + | '-' exp %preg NEG @{ $$ = -$2; @} + | exp '^' exp @{ $$ = pow ($1, $3); @} + | '(' exp ')' @{ $$ = $2; @} +@end group +@end example + +This code shows how to reach locations inside of semantic actions, by +using the pseudo-variables @code{@@@var{n}} for rule components, and the +pseudo-variable @code{@@$} for groupings. + +We don't need to assign a value to @code{@@$}: the output parser does it +automatically. By default, before executing the C code of each action, +@code{@@$} is set to range from the beginning of @code{@@1} to the end +of @code{@@@var{n}}, for a rule with @var{n} components. This behavior +can be redefined (@pxref{Location Default Action, , Default Action for +Locations}), and for very specific rules, @code{@@$} can be computed by +hand. + +@node Ltcalc Lexer +@subsection The @code{ltcalc} Lexical Analyzer. + +Until now, we relied on Bison's defaults to enable location +tracking. The next step is to rewrite the lexical analyzer, and make it +able to feed the parser with the token locations, as it already does for +semantic values. + +To this end, we must take into account every single character of the +input text, to avoid the computed locations of being fuzzy or wrong: + +@example +@group +int +yylex (void) +@{ + int c; +@end group + +@group + /* Skip white space. */ + while ((c = getchar ()) == ' ' || c == '\t') + ++yylloc.last_column; +@end group + +@group + /* Step. */ + yylloc.first_line = yylloc.last_line; + yylloc.first_column = yylloc.last_column; +@end group + +@group + /* Process numbers. */ + if (isdigit (c)) + @{ + yylval = c - '0'; + ++yylloc.last_column; + while (isdigit (c = getchar ())) + @{ + ++yylloc.last_column; + yylval = yylval * 10 + c - '0'; + @} + ungetc (c, stdin); + return NUM; + @} +@end group + + /* Return end-of-input. */ + if (c == EOF) + return 0; + + /* Return a single char, and update location. */ + if (c == '\n') + @{ + ++yylloc.last_line; + yylloc.last_column = 0; + @} + else + ++yylloc.last_column; + return c; +@} +@end example + +Basically, the lexical analyzer performs the same processing as before: +it skips blanks and tabs, and reads numbers or single-character tokens. +In addition, it updates @code{yylloc}, the global variable (of type +@code{YYLTYPE}) containing the token's location. + +Now, each time this function returns a token, the parser has its number +as well as its semantic value, and its location in the text. The last +needed change is to initialize @code{yylloc}, for example in the +controlling function: + +@example +@group +int +main (void) +@{ + yylloc.first_line = yylloc.last_line = 1; + yylloc.first_column = yylloc.last_column = 0; + return yyparse (); +@} +@end group +@end example + +Remember that computing locations is not a matter of syntax. Every +character must be associated to a location update, whether it is in +valid input, in comments, in literal strings, and so on. + +@node Multi-function Calc +@section Multi-Function Calculator: @code{mfcalc} +@cindex multi-function calculator +@cindex @code{mfcalc} +@cindex calculator, multi-function + +Now that the basics of Bison have been discussed, it is time to move on to +a more advanced problem. The above calculators provided only five +functions, @samp{+}, @samp{-}, @samp{*}, @samp{/} and @samp{^}. It would +be nice to have a calculator that provides other mathematical functions such +as @code{sin}, @code{cos}, etc. + +It is easy to add new operators to the infix calculator as long as they are +only single-character literals. The lexical analyzer @code{yylex} passes +back all nonnumber characters as tokens, so new grammar rules suffice for +adding a new operator. But we want something more flexible: built-in +functions whose syntax has this form: + +@example +@var{function_name} (@var{argument}) +@end example + +@noindent +At the same time, we will add memory to the calculator, by allowing you +to create named variables, store values in them, and use them later. +Here is a sample session with the multi-function calculator: + +@example +$ @kbd{mfcalc} +@kbd{pi = 3.141592653589} +3.1415926536 +@kbd{sin(pi)} +0.0000000000 +@kbd{alpha = beta1 = 2.3} +2.3000000000 +@kbd{alpha} +2.3000000000 +@kbd{ln(alpha)} +0.8329091229 +@kbd{exp(ln(beta1))} +2.3000000000 +$ +@end example + +Note that multiple assignment and nested function calls are permitted. + +@menu +* Decl: Mfcalc Decl. Bison declarations for multi-function calculator. +* Rules: Mfcalc Rules. Grammar rules for the calculator. +* Symtab: Mfcalc Symtab. Symbol table management subroutines. +@end menu + +@node Mfcalc Decl +@subsection Declarations for @code{mfcalc} + +Here are the C and Bison declarations for the multi-function calculator. + +@smallexample +@group +%@{ + #include /* For math functions, cos(), sin(), etc. */ + #include "calc.h" /* Contains definition of `symrec'. */ + int yylex (void); + void yyerror (char const *); +%@} +@end group +@group +%union @{ + double val; /* For returning numbers. */ + symrec *tptr; /* For returning symbol-table pointers. */ +@} +@end group +%token NUM /* Simple double precision number. */ +%token VAR FNCT /* Variable and Function. */ +%type exp + +@group +%right '=' +%left '-' '+' +%left '*' '/' +%left NEG /* negation--unary minus */ +%right '^' /* exponentiation */ +@end group +%% /* The grammar follows. */ +@end smallexample + +The above grammar introduces only two new features of the Bison language. +These features allow semantic values to have various data types +(@pxref{Multiple Types, ,More Than One Value Type}). + +The @code{%union} declaration specifies the entire list of possible types; +this is instead of defining @code{YYSTYPE}. The allowable types are now +double-floats (for @code{exp} and @code{NUM}) and pointers to entries in +the symbol table. @xref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}. + +Since values can now have various types, it is necessary to associate a +type with each grammar symbol whose semantic value is used. These symbols +are @code{NUM}, @code{VAR}, @code{FNCT}, and @code{exp}. Their +declarations are augmented with information about their data type (placed +between angle brackets). + +The Bison construct @code{%type} is used for declaring nonterminal +symbols, just as @code{%token} is used for declaring token types. We +have not used @code{%type} before because nonterminal symbols are +normally declared implicitly by the rules that define them. But +@code{exp} must be declared explicitly so we can specify its value type. +@xref{Type Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}. + +@node Mfcalc Rules +@subsection Grammar Rules for @code{mfcalc} + +Here are the grammar rules for the multi-function calculator. +Most of them are copied directly from @code{calc}; three rules, +those which mention @code{VAR} or @code{FNCT}, are new. + +@smallexample +@group +input: /* empty */ + | input line +; +@end group + +@group +line: + '\n' + | exp '\n' @{ printf ("\t%.10g\n", $1); @} + | error '\n' @{ yyerrok; @} +; +@end group + +@group +exp: NUM @{ $$ = $1; @} + | VAR @{ $$ = $1->value.var; @} + | VAR '=' exp @{ $$ = $3; $1->value.var = $3; @} + | FNCT '(' exp ')' @{ $$ = (*($1->value.fnctptr))($3); @} + | exp '+' exp @{ $$ = $1 + $3; @} + | exp '-' exp @{ $$ = $1 - $3; @} + | exp '*' exp @{ $$ = $1 * $3; @} + | exp '/' exp @{ $$ = $1 / $3; @} + | '-' exp %prec NEG @{ $$ = -$2; @} | exp '^' exp @{ $$ = pow ($1, $3); @} | '(' exp ')' @{ $$ = $2; @} ; -/* End of grammar */ +@end group +/* End of grammar. */ %% @end smallexample -@node Mfcalc Symtab, , Mfcalc Rules, Multi-function Calc +@node Mfcalc Symtab @subsection The @code{mfcalc} Symbol Table @cindex symbol table example @@ -1859,30 +2273,35 @@ The symbol table itself consists of a linked list of records. Its definition, which is kept in the header @file{calc.h}, is as follows. It provides for either functions or variables to be placed in the table. -@c FIXME: ANSIfy the prototypes for FNCTPTR etc. @smallexample @group -/* Data type for links in the chain of symbols. */ +/* Function type. */ +typedef double (*func_t) (double); +@end group + +@group +/* Data type for links in the chain of symbols. */ struct symrec @{ - char *name; /* name of symbol */ + char *name; /* name of symbol */ int type; /* type of symbol: either VAR or FNCT */ - union @{ - double var; /* value of a VAR */ - double (*fnctptr)(); /* value of a FNCT */ + union + @{ + double var; /* value of a VAR */ + func_t fnctptr; /* value of a FNCT */ @} value; - struct symrec *next; /* link field */ + struct symrec *next; /* link field */ @}; @end group @group typedef struct symrec symrec; -/* The symbol table: a chain of `struct symrec'. */ +/* The symbol table: a chain of `struct symrec'. */ extern symrec *sym_table; -symrec *putsym (); -symrec *getsym (); +symrec *putsym (char const *, int); +symrec *getsym (char const *); @end group @end smallexample @@ -1891,49 +2310,45 @@ function that initializes the symbol table. Here it is, and @code{init_table} as well: @smallexample -@group #include -int -main (void) -@{ - init_table (); - return yyparse (); -@} -@end group - @group +/* Called by yyparse on error. */ void -yyerror (const char *s) /* Called by yyparse on error */ +yyerror (char const *s) @{ printf ("%s\n", s); @} +@end group +@group struct init @{ - char *fname; - double (*fnct)(); + char const *fname; + double (*fnct) (double); @}; @end group @group -struct init arith_fncts[] = +struct init const arith_fncts[] = @{ - "sin", sin, - "cos", cos, + "sin", sin, + "cos", cos, "atan", atan, - "ln", log, - "exp", exp, + "ln", log, + "exp", exp, "sqrt", sqrt, 0, 0 @}; +@end group +@group /* The symbol table: a chain of `struct symrec'. */ -symrec *sym_table = (symrec *)0; +symrec *sym_table; @end group @group -/* Put arithmetic functions in table. */ +/* Put arithmetic functions in table. */ void init_table (void) @{ @@ -1946,6 +2361,15 @@ init_table (void) @} @} @end group + +@group +int +main (void) +@{ + init_table (); + return yyparse (); +@} +@end group @end smallexample By simply editing the initialization list and adding the necessary include @@ -1960,21 +2384,21 @@ found, a pointer to that symbol is returned; otherwise zero is returned. @smallexample symrec * -putsym (char *sym_name, int sym_type) +putsym (char const *sym_name, int sym_type) @{ symrec *ptr; ptr = (symrec *) malloc (sizeof (symrec)); ptr->name = (char *) malloc (strlen (sym_name) + 1); strcpy (ptr->name,sym_name); ptr->type = sym_type; - ptr->value.var = 0; /* set value to 0 even if fctn. */ + ptr->value.var = 0; /* Set value to 0 even if fctn. */ ptr->next = (struct symrec *)sym_table; sym_table = ptr; return ptr; @} symrec * -getsym (const char *sym_name) +getsym (char const *sym_name) @{ symrec *ptr; for (ptr = sym_table; ptr != (symrec *) 0; @@ -1987,7 +2411,7 @@ getsym (const char *sym_name) The function @code{yylex} must now recognize variables, numeric values, and the single-character arithmetic operators. Strings of alphanumeric -characters with a leading nondigit are recognized as either variables or +characters with a leading non-digit are recognized as either variables or functions depending on what the symbol table says about them. The string is passed to @code{getsym} for look up in the symbol table. If @@ -1995,7 +2419,7 @@ the name appears in the table, a pointer to its location and its type (@code{VAR} or @code{FNCT}) is returned to @code{yyparse}. If it is not already in the table, then it is installed as a @code{VAR} using @code{putsym}. Again, a pointer and its type (which must be @code{VAR}) is -returned to @code{yyparse}.@refill +returned to @code{yyparse}. No change is needed in the handling of numeric values and arithmetic operators in @code{yylex}. @@ -2003,13 +2427,15 @@ operators in @code{yylex}. @smallexample @group #include +@end group +@group int yylex (void) @{ int c; - /* Ignore whitespace, get first nonwhite character. */ + /* Ignore white space, get first nonwhite character. */ while ((c = getchar ()) == ' ' || c == '\t'); if (c == EOF) @@ -2051,7 +2477,7 @@ yylex (void) if (i == length) @{ length *= 2; - symbuf = (char *)realloc (symbuf, length + 1); + symbuf = (char *) realloc (symbuf, length + 1); @} /* Add this character to the buffer. */ symbuf[i++] = c; @@ -2060,7 +2486,7 @@ yylex (void) @} @end group @group - while (c != EOF && isalnum (c)); + while (isalnum (c)); ungetc (c, stdin); symbuf[i] = '\0'; @@ -2080,11 +2506,11 @@ yylex (void) @end group @end smallexample -This program is both powerful and flexible. You may easily add new -functions, and it is a simple job to modify this code to install predefined -variables such as @code{pi} or @code{e} as well. +This program is both powerful and flexible. You may easily add new +functions, and it is a simple job to modify this code to install +predefined variables such as @code{pi} or @code{e} as well. -@node Exercises, , Multi-function Calc, Examples +@node Exercises @section Exercises @cindex exercises @@ -2102,13 +2528,14 @@ Make the program report an error if the user refers to an uninitialized variable in any way except to store a value in it. @end enumerate -@node Grammar File, Interface, Examples, Top +@node Grammar File @chapter Bison Grammar Files Bison takes as input a context-free grammar specification and produces a C-language function that recognizes correct instances of the grammar. The Bison grammar input file conventionally has a name ending in @samp{.y}. +@xref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}. @menu * Grammar Outline:: Overall layout of the grammar file. @@ -2116,11 +2543,12 @@ The Bison grammar input file conventionally has a name ending in @samp{.y}. * Rules:: How to write grammar rules. * Recursion:: Writing recursive rules. * Semantics:: Semantic values and actions. +* Locations:: Locations and actions. * Declarations:: All kinds of Bison declarations are described here. * Multiple Parsers:: Putting more than one Bison parser in one program. @end menu -@node Grammar Outline, Symbols, , Grammar File +@node Grammar Outline @section Outline of a Bison Grammar A Bison grammar file has four main sections, shown here with the @@ -2128,7 +2556,7 @@ appropriate delimiters: @example %@{ -@var{C declarations} + @var{Prologue} %@} @var{Bison declarations} @@ -2137,24 +2565,27 @@ appropriate delimiters: @var{Grammar rules} %% -@var{Additional C code} +@var{Epilogue} @end example Comments enclosed in @samp{/* @dots{} */} may appear in any of the sections. +As a @acronym{GNU} extension, @samp{//} introduces a comment that +continues until end of line. @menu -* C Declarations:: Syntax and usage of the C declarations section. +* Prologue:: Syntax and usage of the prologue. * Bison Declarations:: Syntax and usage of the Bison declarations section. * Grammar Rules:: Syntax and usage of the grammar rules section. -* C Code:: Syntax and usage of the additional C code section. +* Epilogue:: Syntax and usage of the epilogue. @end menu -@node C Declarations, Bison Declarations, , Grammar Outline -@subsection The C Declarations Section -@cindex C declarations section -@cindex declarations, C +@node Prologue +@subsection The prologue +@cindex declarations section +@cindex Prologue +@cindex declarations -The @var{C declarations} section contains macro definitions and +The @var{Prologue} section contains macro definitions and declarations of functions and variables that are used in the actions in the grammar rules. These are copied to the beginning of the parser file so that they precede the definition of @code{yyparse}. You can use @@ -2162,7 +2593,34 @@ that they precede the definition of @code{yyparse}. You can use need any C declarations, you may omit the @samp{%@{} and @samp{%@}} delimiters that bracket this section. -@node Bison Declarations, Grammar Rules, C Declarations, Grammar Outline +You may have more than one @var{Prologue} section, intermixed with the +@var{Bison declarations}. This allows you to have C and Bison +declarations that refer to each other. For example, the @code{%union} +declaration may use types defined in a header file, and you may wish to +prototype functions that take arguments of type @code{YYSTYPE}. This +can be done with two @var{Prologue} blocks, one before and one after the +@code{%union} declaration. + +@smallexample +%@{ + #include + #include "ptypes.h" +%@} + +%union @{ + long int n; + tree t; /* @r{@code{tree} is defined in @file{ptypes.h}.} */ +@} + +%@{ + static void print_token_value (FILE *, int, YYSTYPE); + #define YYPRINT(F, N, L) print_token_value (F, N, L) +%@} + +@dots{} +@end smallexample + +@node Bison Declarations @subsection The Bison Declarations Section @cindex Bison declarations (introduction) @cindex declarations, Bison (introduction) @@ -2172,7 +2630,7 @@ terminal and nonterminal symbols, specify precedence, and so on. In some simple grammars you may not need any declarations. @xref{Declarations, ,Bison Declarations}. -@node Grammar Rules, C Code, Bison Declarations, Grammar Outline +@node Grammar Rules @subsection The Grammar Rules Section @cindex grammar rules section @cindex rules section for grammar @@ -2184,28 +2642,31 @@ There must always be at least one grammar rule, and the first @samp{%%} (which precedes the grammar rules) may never be omitted even if it is the first thing in the file. -@node C Code, , Grammar Rules, Grammar Outline -@subsection The Additional C Code Section +@node Epilogue +@subsection The epilogue @cindex additional C code section +@cindex epilogue @cindex C code, section for additional -The @var{additional C code} section is copied verbatim to the end of the -parser file, just as the @var{C declarations} section is copied to the -beginning. This is the most convenient place to put anything that you -want to have in the parser file but which need not come before the -definition of @code{yyparse}. For example, the definitions of -@code{yylex} and @code{yyerror} often go here. @xref{Interface, ,Parser -C-Language Interface}. +The @var{Epilogue} is copied verbatim to the end of the parser file, just as +the @var{Prologue} is copied to the beginning. This is the most convenient +place to put anything that you want to have in the parser file but which need +not come before the definition of @code{yyparse}. For example, the +definitions of @code{yylex} and @code{yyerror} often go here. Because +C requires functions to be declared before being used, you often need +to declare functions like @code{yylex} and @code{yyerror} in the Prologue, +even if you define them in the Epilogue. +@xref{Interface, ,Parser C-Language Interface}. If the last section is empty, you may omit the @samp{%%} that separates it from the grammar rules. -The Bison parser itself contains many static variables whose names start -with @samp{yy} and many macros whose names start with @samp{YY}. It is a +The Bison parser itself contains many macros and identifiers whose +names start with @samp{yy} or @samp{YY}, so it is a good idea to avoid using any such names (except those documented in this -manual) in the additional C code section of the grammar file. +manual) in the epilogue of the grammar file. -@node Symbols, Rules, Grammar Outline, Grammar File +@node Symbols @section Symbols, Terminal and Nonterminal @cindex nonterminal symbol @cindex terminal symbol @@ -2235,7 +2696,7 @@ There are three ways of writing terminal symbols in the grammar: @itemize @bullet @item A @dfn{named token type} is written with an identifier, like an -identifier in C. By convention, it should be all upper case. Each +identifier in C@. By convention, it should be all upper case. Each such name must be defined with a Bison declaration such as @code{%token}. @xref{Token Decl, ,Token Type Names}. @@ -2259,9 +2720,11 @@ your program will confuse other readers. All the usual escape sequences used in character literals in C can be used in Bison as well, but you must not use the null character as a -character literal because its ASCII code, zero, is the code @code{yylex} -returns for end-of-input (@pxref{Calling Convention, ,Calling Convention -for @code{yylex}}). +character literal because its numeric code, zero, signifies +end-of-input (@pxref{Calling Convention, ,Calling Convention +for @code{yylex}}). Also, unlike standard C, trigraphs have no +special meaning in Bison character literals, nor is backslash-newline +allowed. @item @cindex string token @@ -2270,7 +2733,7 @@ for @code{yylex}}). A @dfn{literal string token} is written like a C string constant; for example, @code{"<="} is a literal string token. A literal string token doesn't need to be declared unless you need to specify its semantic -value data type (@pxref{Value Type}), associativity, precedence +value data type (@pxref{Value Type}), associativity, or precedence (@pxref{Precedence}). You can associate the literal string token with a symbolic name as an @@ -2279,7 +2742,7 @@ Declarations}). If you don't do that, the lexical analyzer has to retrieve the token number for the literal string token from the @code{yytname} table (@pxref{Calling Convention}). -@strong{WARNING}: literal string tokens do not work in Yacc. +@strong{Warning}: literal string tokens do not work in Yacc. By convention, a literal string token is used only to represent a token that consists of that particular string. Thus, you should use the token @@ -2288,21 +2751,26 @@ does not enforce this convention, but if you depart from it, people who read your program will be confused. All the escape sequences used in string literals in C can be used in -Bison as well. A literal string token must contain two or more -characters; for a token containing just one character, use a character -token (see above). +Bison as well, except that you must not use a null character within a +string literal. Also, unlike Standard C, trigraphs have no special +meaning in Bison string literals, nor is backslash-newline allowed. A +literal string token must contain two or more characters; for a token +containing just one character, use a character token (see above). @end itemize How you choose to write a terminal symbol has no effect on its grammatical meaning. That depends only on where it appears in rules and on when the parser function returns that symbol. -The value returned by @code{yylex} is always one of the terminal symbols -(or 0 for end-of-input). Whichever way you write the token type in the -grammar rules, you write it the same way in the definition of @code{yylex}. -The numeric code for a character token type is simply the ASCII code for -the character, so @code{yylex} can use the identical character constant to -generate the requisite code. Each named token type becomes a C macro in +The value returned by @code{yylex} is always one of the terminal +symbols, except that a zero or negative value signifies end-of-input. +Whichever way you write the token type in the grammar rules, you write +it the same way in the definition of @code{yylex}. The numeric code +for a character token type is simply the positive numeric code of the +character, so @code{yylex} can use the identical value to generate the +requisite code, though you may need to convert it to @code{unsigned +char} to avoid sign-extension on hosts where @code{char} is signed. +Each named token type becomes a C macro in the parser file, so @code{yylex} can use the name to stand for the code. (This is why periods don't make sense in terminal symbols.) @xref{Calling Convention, ,Calling Convention for @code{yylex}}. @@ -2313,11 +2781,35 @@ option when you run Bison, so that it will write these macro definitions into a separate header file @file{@var{name}.tab.h} which you can include in the other source files that need it. @xref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}. +If you want to write a grammar that is portable to any Standard C +host, you must use only non-null character tokens taken from the basic +execution character set of Standard C@. This set consists of the ten +digits, the 52 lower- and upper-case English letters, and the +characters in the following C-language string: + +@example +"\a\b\t\n\v\f\r !\"#%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?[\\]^_@{|@}~" +@end example + +The @code{yylex} function and Bison must use a consistent character +set and encoding for character tokens. For example, if you run Bison in an +@acronym{ASCII} environment, but then compile and run the resulting program +in an environment that uses an incompatible character set like +@acronym{EBCDIC}, the resulting program may not work because the +tables generated by Bison will assume @acronym{ASCII} numeric values for +character tokens. It is standard +practice for software distributions to contain C source files that +were generated by Bison in an @acronym{ASCII} environment, so installers on +platforms that are incompatible with @acronym{ASCII} must rebuild those +files before compiling them. + The symbol @code{error} is a terminal symbol reserved for error recovery (@pxref{Error Recovery}); you shouldn't use it for any other purpose. -In particular, @code{yylex} should never return this value. +In particular, @code{yylex} should never return this value. The default +value of the error token is 256, unless you explicitly assigned 256 to +one of your tokens with a @code{%token} declaration. -@node Rules, Recursion, Symbols, Grammar File +@node Rules @section Syntax of Grammar Rules @cindex rule syntax @cindex grammar rule syntax @@ -2350,8 +2842,8 @@ exp: exp '+' exp says that two groupings of type @code{exp}, with a @samp{+} token in between, can be combined into a larger grouping of type @code{exp}. -Whitespace in rules is significant only to separate symbols. You can add -extra whitespace as you wish. +White space in rules is significant only to separate symbols. You can add +extra white space as you wish. Scattered among the components can be @var{actions} that determine the semantics of the rule. An action looks like this: @@ -2412,7 +2904,7 @@ expseq1: exp It is customary to write a comment @samp{/* empty */} in each rule with no components. -@node Recursion, Semantics, Rules, Grammar File +@node Recursion @section Recursive Rules @cindex recursive rule @@ -2446,14 +2938,14 @@ expseq1: exp @end example @noindent -Any kind of sequence can be defined using either left recursion or -right recursion, but you should always use left recursion, because it -can parse a sequence of any number of elements with bounded stack -space. Right recursion uses up space on the Bison stack in proportion -to the number of elements in the sequence, because all the elements -must be shifted onto the stack before the rule can be applied even -once. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm }, for -further explanation of this. +Any kind of sequence can be defined using either left recursion or right +recursion, but you should always use left recursion, because it can +parse a sequence of any number of elements with bounded stack space. +Right recursion uses up space on the Bison stack in proportion to the +number of elements in the sequence, because all the elements must be +shifted onto the stack before the rule can be applied even once. +@xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm}, for further explanation +of this. @cindex mutual recursion @dfn{Indirect} or @dfn{mutual} recursion occurs when the result of the @@ -2481,7 +2973,7 @@ primary: constant defines two mutually-recursive nonterminals, since each refers to the other. -@node Semantics, Declarations, Recursion, Grammar File +@node Semantics @section Defining Language Semantics @cindex defining language semantics @cindex language semantics, defining @@ -2505,7 +2997,7 @@ the numbers associated with @var{x} and @var{y}. action in the middle of a rule. @end menu -@node Value Type, Multiple Types, , Semantics +@node Value Type @subsection Data Types of Semantic Values @cindex semantic value type @cindex value type, semantic @@ -2514,7 +3006,8 @@ the numbers associated with @var{x} and @var{y}. In a simple program it may be sufficient to use the same data type for the semantic values of all language constructs. This was true in the -RPN and infix calculator examples (@pxref{RPN Calc, ,Reverse Polish Notation Calculator}). +@acronym{RPN} and infix calculator examples (@pxref{RPN Calc, ,Reverse Polish +Notation Calculator}). Bison's default is to use type @code{int} for all semantic values. To specify some other type, define @code{YYSTYPE} as a macro, like this: @@ -2524,15 +3017,15 @@ specify some other type, define @code{YYSTYPE} as a macro, like this: @end example @noindent -This macro definition must go in the C declarations section of the grammar -file (@pxref{Grammar Outline, ,Outline of a Bison Grammar}). +This macro definition must go in the prologue of the grammar file +(@pxref{Grammar Outline, ,Outline of a Bison Grammar}). -@node Multiple Types, Actions, Value Type, Semantics +@node Multiple Types @subsection More Than One Value Type In most programs, you will need different data types for different kinds of tokens and groupings. For example, a numeric constant may need type -@code{int} or @code{long}, while a string constant needs type @code{char *}, +@code{int} or @code{long int}, while a string constant needs type @code{char *}, and an identifier might need a pointer to an entry in the symbol table. To use more than one data type for semantic values in one parser, Bison @@ -2541,16 +3034,18 @@ requires you to do two things: @itemize @bullet @item Specify the entire collection of possible data types, with the -@code{%union} Bison declaration (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}). +@code{%union} Bison declaration (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of +Value Types}). @item -Choose one of those types for each symbol (terminal or nonterminal) -for which semantic values are used. This is done for tokens with the -@code{%token} Bison declaration (@pxref{Token Decl, ,Token Type Names}) and for groupings -with the @code{%type} Bison declaration (@pxref{Type Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}). +Choose one of those types for each symbol (terminal or nonterminal) for +which semantic values are used. This is done for tokens with the +@code{%token} Bison declaration (@pxref{Token Decl, ,Token Type Names}) +and for groupings with the @code{%type} Bison declaration (@pxref{Type +Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}). @end itemize -@node Actions, Action Types, Multiple Types, Semantics +@node Actions @subsection Actions @cindex action @vindex $$ @@ -2562,17 +3057,25 @@ is to compute a semantic value for the grouping built by the rule from the semantic values associated with tokens or smaller groupings. An action consists of C statements surrounded by braces, much like a -compound statement in C. It can be placed at any position in the rule; it -is executed at that position. Most rules have just one action at the end -of the rule, following all the components. Actions in the middle of a rule -are tricky and used only for special purposes (@pxref{Mid-Rule Actions, ,Actions in Mid-Rule}). +compound statement in C@. An action can contain any sequence of C +statements. Bison does not look for trigraphs, though, so if your C +code uses trigraphs you should ensure that they do not affect the +nesting of braces or the boundaries of comments, strings, or character +literals. + +An action can be placed at any position in the rule; +it is executed at that position. Most rules have just one action at the +end of the rule, following all the components. Actions in the middle of +a rule are tricky and used only for special purposes (@pxref{Mid-Rule +Actions, ,Actions in Mid-Rule}). The C code in an action can refer to the semantic values of the components matched by the rule with the construct @code{$@var{n}}, which stands for the value of the @var{n}th component. The semantic value for the grouping -being constructed is @code{$$}. (Bison translates both of these constructs -into array element references when it copies the actions into the parser -file.) +being constructed is @code{$$}. Bison translates both of these +constructs into expressions of the appropriate type when it copies the +actions into the parser file. @code{$$} is translated to a modifiable +lvalue, so it can be assigned to. Here is a typical example: @@ -2592,15 +3095,27 @@ which are the first and third symbols on the right hand side of the rule. The sum is stored into @code{$$} so that it becomes the semantic value of the addition-expression just recognized by the rule. If there were a useful semantic value associated with the @samp{+} token, it could be -referred to as @code{$2}.@refill +referred to as @code{$2}. + +Note that the vertical-bar character @samp{|} is really a rule +separator, and actions are attached to a single rule. This is a +difference with tools like Flex, for which @samp{|} stands for either +``or'', or ``the same action as that of the next rule''. In the +following example, the action is triggered only when @samp{b} is found: + +@example +@group +a-or-b: 'a'|'b' @{ a_or_b_found = 1; @}; +@end group +@end example @cindex default action If you don't specify an action for a rule, Bison supplies a default: -@w{@code{$$ = $1}.} Thus, the value of the first symbol in the rule becomes -the value of the whole rule. Of course, the default rule is valid only -if the two data types match. There is no meaningful default action for -an empty rule; every empty rule must have an explicit action unless the -rule's value does not matter. +@w{@code{$$ = $1}.} Thus, the value of the first symbol in the rule +becomes the value of the whole rule. Of course, the default action is +valid only if the two data types match. There is no meaningful default +action for an empty rule; every empty rule must have an explicit action +unless the rule's value does not matter. @code{$@var{n}} with @var{n} zero or negative is allowed for reference to tokens and groupings on the stack @emph{before} those that match the @@ -2626,7 +3141,7 @@ As long as @code{bar} is used only in the fashion shown here, @code{$0} always refers to the @code{expr} which precedes @code{bar} in the definition of @code{foo}. -@node Action Types, Mid-Rule Actions, Actions, Semantics +@node Action Types @subsection Data Types of Values in Actions @cindex action data types @cindex data types in actions @@ -2638,7 +3153,7 @@ If you have used @code{%union} to specify a variety of data types, then you must declare a choice among these types for each terminal or nonterminal symbol that can have a semantic value. Then each time you use @code{$$} or @code{$@var{n}}, its data type is determined by which symbol it refers to -in the rule. In this example,@refill +in the rule. In this example, @example @group @@ -2652,7 +3167,7 @@ exp: @dots{} @code{$1} and @code{$3} refer to instances of @code{exp}, so they all have the data type declared for the nonterminal symbol @code{exp}. If @code{$2} were used, it would have the data type declared for the -terminal symbol @code{'+'}, whatever that might be.@refill +terminal symbol @code{'+'}, whatever that might be. Alternatively, you can specify the data type when you refer to the value, by inserting @samp{<@var{type}>} after the @samp{$} at the beginning of the @@ -2671,7 +3186,7 @@ reference. For example, if you have defined types as shown here: then you can write @code{$1} to refer to the first subunit of the rule as an integer, or @code{$1} to refer to it as a double. -@node Mid-Rule Actions, , Action Types, Semantics +@node Mid-Rule Actions @subsection Actions in Mid-Rule @cindex actions in mid-rule @cindex mid-rule actions @@ -2694,8 +3209,8 @@ The mid-rule action can also have a semantic value. The action can set its value with an assignment to @code{$$}, and actions later in the rule can refer to the value using @code{$@var{n}}. Since there is no symbol to name the action, there is no way to declare a data type for the value -in advance, so you must use the @samp{$<@dots{}>} construct to specify a -data type each time you refer to this value. +in advance, so you must use the @samp{$<@dots{}>@var{n}} construct to +specify a data type each time you refer to this value. There is no way to set the value of the entire rule with a mid-rule action, because assignments to @code{$$} do not have that effect. The @@ -2833,43 +3348,241 @@ the action is now at the end of its rule. Any mid-rule action can be converted to an end-of-rule action in this way, and this is what Bison actually does to implement mid-rule actions. -@node Declarations, Multiple Parsers, Semantics, Grammar File -@section Bison Declarations -@cindex declarations, Bison -@cindex Bison declarations - -The @dfn{Bison declarations} section of a Bison grammar defines the symbols -used in formulating the grammar and the data types of semantic values. -@xref{Symbols}. +@node Locations +@section Tracking Locations +@cindex location +@cindex textual location +@cindex location, textual -All token type names (but not single-character literal tokens such as -@code{'+'} and @code{'*'}) must be declared. Nonterminal symbols must be -declared if you need to specify which data type to use for the semantic -value (@pxref{Multiple Types, ,More Than One Value Type}). +Though grammar rules and semantic actions are enough to write a fully +functional parser, it can be useful to process some additional information, +especially symbol locations. -The first rule in the file also specifies the start symbol, by default. -If you want some other symbol to be the start symbol, you must declare -it explicitly (@pxref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}). +The way locations are handled is defined by providing a data type, and +actions to take when rules are matched. @menu -* Token Decl:: Declaring terminal symbols. -* Precedence Decl:: Declaring terminals with precedence and associativity. -* Union Decl:: Declaring the set of all semantic value types. -* Type Decl:: Declaring the choice of type for a nonterminal symbol. -* Expect Decl:: Suppressing warnings about shift/reduce conflicts. -* Start Decl:: Specifying the start symbol. -* Pure Decl:: Requesting a reentrant parser. -* Decl Summary:: Table of all Bison declarations. +* Location Type:: Specifying a data type for locations. +* Actions and Locations:: Using locations in actions. +* Location Default Action:: Defining a general way to compute locations. @end menu -@node Token Decl, Precedence Decl, , Declarations -@subsection Token Type Names -@cindex declaring token type names -@cindex token type names, declaring -@cindex declaring literal string tokens -@findex %token +@node Location Type +@subsection Data Type of Locations +@cindex data type of locations +@cindex default location type -The basic way to declare a token type name (terminal symbol) is as follows: +Defining a data type for locations is much simpler than for semantic values, +since all tokens and groupings always use the same type. + +The type of locations is specified by defining a macro called @code{YYLTYPE}. +When @code{YYLTYPE} is not defined, Bison uses a default structure type with +four members: + +@example +typedef struct YYLTYPE +@{ + int first_line; + int first_column; + int last_line; + int last_column; +@} YYLTYPE; +@end example + +@node Actions and Locations +@subsection Actions and Locations +@cindex location actions +@cindex actions, location +@vindex @@$ +@vindex @@@var{n} + +Actions are not only useful for defining language semantics, but also for +describing the behavior of the output parser with locations. + +The most obvious way for building locations of syntactic groupings is very +similar to the way semantic values are computed. In a given rule, several +constructs can be used to access the locations of the elements being matched. +The location of the @var{n}th component of the right hand side is +@code{@@@var{n}}, while the location of the left hand side grouping is +@code{@@$}. + +Here is a basic example using the default data type for locations: + +@example +@group +exp: @dots{} + | exp '/' exp + @{ + @@$.first_column = @@1.first_column; + @@$.first_line = @@1.first_line; + @@$.last_column = @@3.last_column; + @@$.last_line = @@3.last_line; + if ($3) + $$ = $1 / $3; + else + @{ + $$ = 1; + fprintf (stderr, + "Division by zero, l%d,c%d-l%d,c%d", + @@3.first_line, @@3.first_column, + @@3.last_line, @@3.last_column); + @} + @} +@end group +@end example + +As for semantic values, there is a default action for locations that is +run each time a rule is matched. It sets the beginning of @code{@@$} to the +beginning of the first symbol, and the end of @code{@@$} to the end of the +last symbol. + +With this default action, the location tracking can be fully automatic. The +example above simply rewrites this way: + +@example +@group +exp: @dots{} + | exp '/' exp + @{ + if ($3) + $$ = $1 / $3; + else + @{ + $$ = 1; + fprintf (stderr, + "Division by zero, l%d,c%d-l%d,c%d", + @@3.first_line, @@3.first_column, + @@3.last_line, @@3.last_column); + @} + @} +@end group +@end example + +@node Location Default Action +@subsection Default Action for Locations +@vindex YYLLOC_DEFAULT + +Actually, actions are not the best place to compute locations. Since +locations are much more general than semantic values, there is room in +the output parser to redefine the default action to take for each +rule. The @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT} macro is invoked each time a rule is +matched, before the associated action is run. It is also invoked +while processing a syntax error, to compute the error's location. + +Most of the time, this macro is general enough to suppress location +dedicated code from semantic actions. + +The @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT} macro takes three parameters. The first one is +the location of the grouping (the result of the computation). When a +rule is matched, the second parameter identifies locations of +all right hand side elements of the rule being matched, and the third +parameter is the size of the rule's right hand side. When processing +a syntax error, the second parameter identifies locations of +the symbols that were discarded during error processing, and the third +parameter is the number of discarded symbols. + +By default, @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT} is defined this way: + +@smallexample +@group +# define YYLLOC_DEFAULT(Current, Rhs, N) \ + do \ + if (N) \ + @{ \ + (Current).first_line = YYRHSLOC(Rhs, 1).first_line; \ + (Current).first_column = YYRHSLOC(Rhs, 1).first_column; \ + (Current).last_line = YYRHSLOC(Rhs, N).last_line; \ + (Current).last_column = YYRHSLOC(Rhs, N).last_column; \ + @} \ + else \ + @{ \ + (Current).first_line = (Current).last_line = \ + YYRHSLOC(Rhs, 0).last_line; \ + (Current).first_column = (Current).last_column = \ + YYRHSLOC(Rhs, 0).last_column; \ + @} \ + while (0) +@end group +@end smallexample + +where @code{YYRHSLOC (rhs, k)} is the location of the @var{k}th symbol +in @var{rhs} when @var{k} is positive, and the location of the symbol +just before the reduction when @var{k} and @var{n} are both zero. + +When defining @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT}, you should consider that: + +@itemize @bullet +@item +All arguments are free of side-effects. However, only the first one (the +result) should be modified by @code{YYLLOC_DEFAULT}. + +@item +For consistency with semantic actions, valid indexes within the +right hand side range from 1 to @var{n}. When @var{n} is zero, only 0 is a +valid index, and it refers to the symbol just before the reduction. +During error processing @var{n} is always positive. + +@item +Your macro should parenthesize its arguments, if need be, since the +actual arguments may not be surrounded by parentheses. Also, your +macro should expand to something that can be used as a single +statement when it is followed by a semicolon. +@end itemize + +@node Declarations +@section Bison Declarations +@cindex declarations, Bison +@cindex Bison declarations + +The @dfn{Bison declarations} section of a Bison grammar defines the symbols +used in formulating the grammar and the data types of semantic values. +@xref{Symbols}. + +All token type names (but not single-character literal tokens such as +@code{'+'} and @code{'*'}) must be declared. Nonterminal symbols must be +declared if you need to specify which data type to use for the semantic +value (@pxref{Multiple Types, ,More Than One Value Type}). + +The first rule in the file also specifies the start symbol, by default. +If you want some other symbol to be the start symbol, you must declare +it explicitly (@pxref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free +Grammars}). + +@menu +* Require Decl:: Requiring a Bison version. +* Token Decl:: Declaring terminal symbols. +* Precedence Decl:: Declaring terminals with precedence and associativity. +* Union Decl:: Declaring the set of all semantic value types. +* Type Decl:: Declaring the choice of type for a nonterminal symbol. +* Initial Action Decl:: Code run before parsing starts. +* Destructor Decl:: Declaring how symbols are freed. +* Expect Decl:: Suppressing warnings about parsing conflicts. +* Start Decl:: Specifying the start symbol. +* Pure Decl:: Requesting a reentrant parser. +* Decl Summary:: Table of all Bison declarations. +@end menu + +@node Require Decl +@subsection Require a Version of Bison +@cindex version requirement +@cindex requiring a version of Bison +@findex %require + +You may require the minimum version of Bison to process the grammar. If +the requirement is not met, @command{bison} exits with an error. + +@example +%require "@var{version}" +@end example + +@node Token Decl +@subsection Token Type Names +@cindex declaring token type names +@cindex token type names, declaring +@cindex declaring literal string tokens +@findex %token + +The basic way to declare a token type name (terminal symbol) is as follows: @example %token @var{name} @@ -2879,25 +3592,29 @@ Bison will convert this into a @code{#define} directive in the parser, so that the function @code{yylex} (if it is in this file) can use the name @var{name} to stand for this token type's code. -Alternatively, you can use @code{%left}, @code{%right}, or @code{%nonassoc} -instead of @code{%token}, if you wish to specify associativity and precedence. -@xref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}. +Alternatively, you can use @code{%left}, @code{%right}, or +@code{%nonassoc} instead of @code{%token}, if you wish to specify +associativity and precedence. @xref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator +Precedence}. You can explicitly specify the numeric code for a token type by appending -an integer value in the field immediately following the token name: +a decimal or hexadecimal integer value in the field immediately +following the token name: @example %token NUM 300 +%token XNUM 0x12d // a GNU extension @end example @noindent It is generally best, however, to let Bison choose the numeric codes for all token types. Bison will automatically select codes that don't conflict -with each other or with ASCII characters. +with each other or with normal characters. In the event that the stack type is a union, you must augment the @code{%token} or other token declaration to include the data type -alternative delimited by angle-brackets (@pxref{Multiple Types, ,More Than One Value Type}). +alternative delimited by angle-brackets (@pxref{Multiple Types, ,More +Than One Value Type}). For example: @@ -2935,7 +3652,7 @@ interchangeably in further declarations or the grammar rules. The @code{yylex} function can use the token name or the literal string to obtain the token type code number (@pxref{Calling Convention}). -@node Precedence Decl, Union Decl, Token Decl, Declarations +@node Precedence Decl @subsection Operator Precedence @cindex precedence declarations @cindex declaring operator precedence @@ -2944,7 +3661,8 @@ obtain the token type code number (@pxref{Calling Convention}). Use the @code{%left}, @code{%right} or @code{%nonassoc} declaration to declare a token and specify its precedence and associativity, all at once. These are called @dfn{precedence declarations}. -@xref{Precedence, ,Operator Precedence}, for general information on operator precedence. +@xref{Precedence, ,Operator Precedence}, for general information on +operator precedence. The syntax of a precedence declaration is the same as that of @code{%token}: either @@ -2984,7 +3702,7 @@ When two tokens declared in different precedence declarations associate, the one declared later has the higher precedence and is grouped first. @end itemize -@node Union Decl, Type Decl, Precedence Decl, Declarations +@node Union Decl @subsection The Collection of Value Types @cindex declaring value types @cindex value types, declaring @@ -3012,10 +3730,26 @@ This says that the two alternative types are @code{double} and @code{symrec in the @code{%token} and @code{%type} declarations to pick one of the types for a terminal or nonterminal symbol (@pxref{Type Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}). -Note that, unlike making a @code{union} declaration in C, you do not write +As an extension to @acronym{POSIX}, a tag is allowed after the +@code{union}. For example: + +@example +@group +%union value @{ + double val; + symrec *tptr; +@} +@end group +@end example + +specifies the union tag @code{value}, so the corresponding C type is +@code{union value}. If you do not specify a tag, it defaults to +@code{YYSTYPE}. + +Note that, unlike making a @code{union} declaration in C, you need not write a semicolon after the closing brace. -@node Type Decl, Expect Decl, Union Decl, Declarations +@node Type Decl @subsection Nonterminal Symbols @cindex declaring value types, nonterminals @cindex value types, nonterminals, declaring @@ -3031,31 +3765,146 @@ used. This is done with a @code{%type} declaration, like this: @end example @noindent -Here @var{nonterminal} is the name of a nonterminal symbol, and @var{type} -is the name given in the @code{%union} to the alternative that you want -(@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}). You can give any number of nonterminal symbols in -the same @code{%type} declaration, if they have the same value type. Use -spaces to separate the symbol names. +Here @var{nonterminal} is the name of a nonterminal symbol, and +@var{type} is the name given in the @code{%union} to the alternative +that you want (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}). You +can give any number of nonterminal symbols in the same @code{%type} +declaration, if they have the same value type. Use spaces to separate +the symbol names. You can also declare the value type of a terminal symbol. To do this, use the same @code{<@var{type}>} construction in a declaration for the terminal symbol. All kinds of token declarations allow @code{<@var{type}>}. -@node Expect Decl, Start Decl, Type Decl, Declarations +@node Initial Action Decl +@subsection Performing Actions before Parsing +@findex %initial-action + +Sometimes your parser needs to perform some initializations before +parsing. The @code{%initial-action} directive allows for such arbitrary +code. + +@deffn {Directive} %initial-action @{ @var{code} @} +@findex %initial-action +Declare that the @var{code} must be invoked before parsing each time +@code{yyparse} is called. The @var{code} may use @code{$$} and +@code{@@$} --- initial value and location of the look-ahead --- and the +@code{%parse-param}. +@end deffn + +For instance, if your locations use a file name, you may use + +@example +%parse-param @{ char const *file_name @}; +%initial-action +@{ + @@$.begin.filename = @@$.end.filename = file_name; +@}; +@end example + + +@node Destructor Decl +@subsection Freeing Discarded Symbols +@cindex freeing discarded symbols +@findex %destructor + +Some symbols can be discarded by the parser. During error +recovery (@pxref{Error Recovery}), symbols already pushed +on the stack and tokens coming from the rest of the file +are discarded until the parser falls on its feet. If the parser +runs out of memory, all the symbols on the stack must be discarded. +Even if the parser succeeds, it must discard the start symbol. + +When discarded symbols convey heap based information, this memory is +lost. While this behavior can be tolerable for batch parsers, such as +in traditional compilers, it is unacceptable for programs like shells +or protocol implementations that may parse and execute indefinitely. + +The @code{%destructor} directive defines code that +is called when a symbol is discarded. + +@deffn {Directive} %destructor @{ @var{code} @} @var{symbols} +@findex %destructor +Invoke @var{code} whenever the parser discards one of the +@var{symbols}. Within @var{code}, @code{$$} designates the semantic +value associated with the discarded symbol. The additional +parser parameters are also available +(@pxref{Parser Function, , The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}). + +@strong{Warning:} as of Bison 2.1, this feature is still +experimental, as there has not been enough user feedback. In particular, +the syntax might still change. +@end deffn + +For instance: + +@smallexample +%union +@{ + char *string; +@} +%token STRING +%type string +%destructor @{ free ($$); @} STRING string +@end smallexample + +@noindent +guarantees that when a @code{STRING} or a @code{string} is discarded, +its associated memory will be freed. + +Note that in the future, Bison might also consider that right hand side +members that are not mentioned in the action can be destroyed. For +instance, in: + +@smallexample +comment: "/*" STRING "*/"; +@end smallexample + +@noindent +the parser is entitled to destroy the semantic value of the +@code{string}. Of course, this will not apply to the default action; +compare: + +@smallexample +typeless: string; // $$ = $1 does not apply; $1 is destroyed. +typefull: string; // $$ = $1 applies, $1 is not destroyed. +@end smallexample + +@sp 1 + +@cindex discarded symbols +@dfn{Discarded symbols} are the following: + +@itemize +@item +stacked symbols popped during the first phase of error recovery, +@item +incoming terminals during the second phase of error recovery, +@item +the current look-ahead and the entire stack when the parser aborts +(either via an explicit call to @code{YYABORT}, or as a consequence of +a failed error recovery or of memory exhaustion), and +@item +the start symbol, when the parser succeeds. +@end itemize + + +@node Expect Decl @subsection Suppressing Conflict Warnings @cindex suppressing conflict warnings @cindex preventing warnings about conflicts @cindex warnings, preventing @cindex conflicts, suppressing warnings of @findex %expect +@findex %expect-rr Bison normally warns if there are any conflicts in the grammar -(@pxref{Shift/Reduce, ,Shift/Reduce Conflicts}), but most real grammars have harmless shift/reduce -conflicts which are resolved in a predictable way and would be difficult to -eliminate. It is desirable to suppress the warning about these conflicts -unless the number of conflicts changes. You can do this with the -@code{%expect} declaration. +(@pxref{Shift/Reduce, ,Shift/Reduce Conflicts}), but most real grammars +have harmless shift/reduce conflicts which are resolved in a predictable +way and would be difficult to eliminate. It is desirable to suppress +the warning about these conflicts unless the number of conflicts +changes. You can do this with the @code{%expect} declaration. The declaration looks like this: @@ -3063,10 +3912,23 @@ The declaration looks like this: %expect @var{n} @end example -Here @var{n} is a decimal integer. The declaration says there should be no -warning if there are @var{n} shift/reduce conflicts and no reduce/reduce -conflicts. The usual warning is given if there are either more or fewer -conflicts, or if there are any reduce/reduce conflicts. +Here @var{n} is a decimal integer. The declaration says there should be +no warning if there are @var{n} shift/reduce conflicts and no +reduce/reduce conflicts. The usual warning is +given if there are either more or fewer conflicts, or if there are any +reduce/reduce conflicts. + +For normal @acronym{LALR}(1) parsers, reduce/reduce conflicts are more serious, +and should be eliminated entirely. Bison will always report +reduce/reduce conflicts for these parsers. With @acronym{GLR} parsers, however, +both shift/reduce and reduce/reduce are routine (otherwise, there +would be no need to use @acronym{GLR} parsing). Therefore, it is also possible +to specify an expected number of reduce/reduce conflicts in @acronym{GLR} +parsers, using the declaration: + +@example +%expect-rr @var{n} +@end example In general, using @code{%expect} involves these steps: @@ -3086,11 +3948,11 @@ Add an @code{%expect} declaration, copying the number @var{n} from the number which Bison printed. @end itemize -Now Bison will stop annoying you about the conflicts you have checked, but -it will warn you again if changes in the grammar result in additional -conflicts. +Now Bison will stop annoying you if you do not change the number of +conflicts, but it will warn you again if changes in the grammar result +in more or fewer conflicts. -@node Start Decl, Pure Decl, Expect Decl, Declarations +@node Start Decl @subsection The Start-Symbol @cindex declaring the start symbol @cindex start symbol, declaring @@ -3105,31 +3967,31 @@ may override this restriction with the @code{%start} declaration as follows: %start @var{symbol} @end example -@node Pure Decl, Decl Summary, Start Decl, Declarations +@node Pure Decl @subsection A Pure (Reentrant) Parser @cindex reentrant parser @cindex pure parser -@findex %pure_parser +@findex %pure-parser A @dfn{reentrant} program is one which does not alter in the course of execution; in other words, it consists entirely of @dfn{pure} (read-only) code. Reentrancy is important whenever asynchronous execution is possible; -for example, a nonreentrant program may not be safe to call from a signal -handler. In systems with multiple threads of control, a nonreentrant +for example, a non-reentrant program may not be safe to call from a signal +handler. In systems with multiple threads of control, a non-reentrant program must be called only within interlocks. Normally, Bison generates a parser which is not reentrant. This is -suitable for most uses, and it permits compatibility with YACC. (The -standard YACC interfaces are inherently nonreentrant, because they use +suitable for most uses, and it permits compatibility with Yacc. (The +standard Yacc interfaces are inherently nonreentrant, because they use statically allocated variables for communication with @code{yylex}, including @code{yylval} and @code{yylloc}.) Alternatively, you can generate a pure, reentrant parser. The Bison -declaration @code{%pure_parser} says that you want the parser to be +declaration @code{%pure-parser} says that you want the parser to be reentrant. It looks like this: @example -%pure_parser +%pure-parser @end example The result is that the communication variables @code{yylval} and @@ -3145,84 +4007,196 @@ Whether the parser is pure has nothing to do with the grammar rules. You can generate either a pure parser or a nonreentrant parser from any valid grammar. -@node Decl Summary, , Pure Decl, Declarations +@node Decl Summary @subsection Bison Declaration Summary @cindex Bison declaration summary @cindex declaration summary @cindex summary, Bison declaration -Here is a summary of all Bison declarations: +Here is a summary of the declarations used to define a grammar: -@table @code -@item %union +@deffn {Directive} %union Declare the collection of data types that semantic values may have (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}). +@end deffn -@item %token +@deffn {Directive} %token Declare a terminal symbol (token type name) with no precedence or associativity specified (@pxref{Token Decl, ,Token Type Names}). +@end deffn -@item %right +@deffn {Directive} %right Declare a terminal symbol (token type name) that is right-associative (@pxref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}). +@end deffn -@item %left +@deffn {Directive} %left Declare a terminal symbol (token type name) that is left-associative (@pxref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}). +@end deffn -@item %nonassoc +@deffn {Directive} %nonassoc Declare a terminal symbol (token type name) that is nonassociative -(using it in a way that would be associative is a syntax error) (@pxref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}). +Using it in a way that would be associative is a syntax error. +@end deffn + +@ifset defaultprec +@deffn {Directive} %default-prec +Assign a precedence to rules lacking an explicit @code{%prec} modifier +(@pxref{Contextual Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}). +@end deffn +@end ifset -@item %type +@deffn {Directive} %type Declare the type of semantic values for a nonterminal symbol (@pxref{Type Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}). +@end deffn -@item %start -Specify the grammar's start symbol (@pxref{Start Decl, ,The Start-Symbol}). +@deffn {Directive} %start +Specify the grammar's start symbol (@pxref{Start Decl, ,The +Start-Symbol}). +@end deffn -@item %expect +@deffn {Directive} %expect Declare the expected number of shift-reduce conflicts (@pxref{Expect Decl, ,Suppressing Conflict Warnings}). +@end deffn + + +@sp 1 +@noindent +In order to change the behavior of @command{bison}, use the following +directives: + +@deffn {Directive} %debug +In the parser file, define the macro @code{YYDEBUG} to 1 if it is not +already defined, so that the debugging facilities are compiled. +@end deffn +@xref{Tracing, ,Tracing Your Parser}. + +@deffn {Directive} %defines +Write a header file containing macro definitions for the token type +names defined in the grammar as well as a few other declarations. +If the parser output file is named @file{@var{name}.c} then this file +is named @file{@var{name}.h}. + +Unless @code{YYSTYPE} is already defined as a macro, the output header +declares @code{YYSTYPE}. Therefore, if you are using a @code{%union} +(@pxref{Multiple Types, ,More Than One Value Type}) with components +that require other definitions, or if you have defined a +@code{YYSTYPE} macro (@pxref{Value Type, ,Data Types of Semantic +Values}), you need to arrange for these definitions to be propagated to +all modules, e.g., by putting them in a +prerequisite header that is included both by your parser and by any +other module that needs @code{YYSTYPE}. + +Unless your parser is pure, the output header declares @code{yylval} +as an external variable. @xref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) +Parser}. + +If you have also used locations, the output header declares +@code{YYLTYPE} and @code{yylloc} using a protocol similar to that of +@code{YYSTYPE} and @code{yylval}. @xref{Locations, ,Tracking +Locations}. + +This output file is normally essential if you wish to put the +definition of @code{yylex} in a separate source file, because +@code{yylex} typically needs to be able to refer to the +above-mentioned declarations and to the token type codes. +@xref{Token Values, ,Semantic Values of Tokens}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %destructor +Specify how the parser should reclaim the memory associated to +discarded symbols. @xref{Destructor Decl, , Freeing Discarded Symbols}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %file-prefix="@var{prefix}" +Specify a prefix to use for all Bison output file names. The names are +chosen as if the input file were named @file{@var{prefix}.y}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %locations +Generate the code processing the locations (@pxref{Action Features, +,Special Features for Use in Actions}). This mode is enabled as soon as +the grammar uses the special @samp{@@@var{n}} tokens, but if your +grammar does not use it, using @samp{%locations} allows for more +accurate syntax error messages. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %name-prefix="@var{prefix}" +Rename the external symbols used in the parser so that they start with +@var{prefix} instead of @samp{yy}. The precise list of symbols renamed +is @code{yyparse}, @code{yylex}, @code{yyerror}, @code{yynerrs}, +@code{yylval}, @code{yylloc}, @code{yychar}, @code{yydebug}, and +possible @code{yylloc}. For example, if you use +@samp{%name-prefix="c_"}, the names become @code{c_parse}, @code{c_lex}, +and so on. @xref{Multiple Parsers, ,Multiple Parsers in the Same +Program}. +@end deffn + +@ifset defaultprec +@deffn {Directive} %no-default-prec +Do not assign a precedence to rules lacking an explicit @code{%prec} +modifier (@pxref{Contextual Precedence, ,Context-Dependent +Precedence}). +@end deffn +@end ifset + +@deffn {Directive} %no-parser +Do not include any C code in the parser file; generate tables only. The +parser file contains just @code{#define} directives and static variable +declarations. -@item %pure_parser -Request a pure (reentrant) parser program (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}). +This option also tells Bison to write the C code for the grammar actions +into a file named @file{@var{file}.act}, in the form of a +brace-surrounded body fit for a @code{switch} statement. +@end deffn -@item %no_lines +@deffn {Directive} %no-lines Don't generate any @code{#line} preprocessor commands in the parser file. Ordinarily Bison writes these commands in the parser file so that the C compiler and debuggers will associate errors and object code with your source file (the grammar file). This directive causes them to associate errors with the parser file, treating it an independent source file in its own right. +@end deffn -@item %raw -The output file @file{@var{name}.h} normally defines the tokens with -Yacc-compatible token numbers. If this option is specified, the -internal Bison numbers are used instead. (Yacc-compatible numbers start -at 257 except for single-character tokens; Bison assigns token numbers -sequentially for all tokens starting at 3.) +@deffn {Directive} %output="@var{file}" +Specify @var{file} for the parser file. +@end deffn -@item %token_table +@deffn {Directive} %pure-parser +Request a pure (reentrant) parser program (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure +(Reentrant) Parser}). +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %require "@var{version}" +Specify that version @var{version} or higher of Bison required for the +grammar. +@xref{Require Decl, , Require a Version of Bison}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %token-table Generate an array of token names in the parser file. The name of the array is @code{yytname}; @code{yytname[@var{i}]} is the name of the -token whose internal Bison token code number is @var{i}. The first three -elements of @code{yytname} are always @code{"$"}, @code{"error"}, and -@code{"$illegal"}; after these come the symbols defined in the grammar -file. - -For single-character literal tokens and literal string tokens, the name -in the table includes the single-quote or double-quote characters: for -example, @code{"'+'"} is a single-character literal and @code{"\"<=\""} -is a literal string token. All the characters of the literal string -token appear verbatim in the string found in the table; even -double-quote characters are not escaped. For example, if the token -consists of three characters @samp{*"*}, its string in @code{yytname} -contains @samp{"*"*"}. (In C, that would be written as -@code{"\"*\"*\""}). - -When you specify @code{%token_table}, Bison also generates macro +token whose internal Bison token code number is @var{i}. The first +three elements of @code{yytname} correspond to the predefined tokens +@code{"$end"}, +@code{"error"}, and @code{"$undefined"}; after these come the symbols +defined in the grammar file. + +The name in the table includes all the characters needed to represent +the token in Bison. For single-character literals and literal +strings, this includes the surrounding quoting characters and any +escape sequences. For example, the Bison single-character literal +@code{'+'} corresponds to a three-character name, represented in C as +@code{"'+'"}; and the Bison two-character literal string @code{"\\/"} +corresponds to a five-character name, represented in C as +@code{"\"\\\\/\""}. + +When you specify @code{%token-table}, Bison also generates macro definitions for macros @code{YYNTOKENS}, @code{YYNNTS}, and @code{YYNRULES}, and @code{YYNSTATES}: @@ -3236,9 +4210,22 @@ The number of grammar rules, @item YYNSTATES The number of parser states (@pxref{Parser States}). @end table -@end table +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %verbose +Write an extra output file containing verbose descriptions of the +parser states and what is done for each type of look-ahead token in +that state. @xref{Understanding, , Understanding Your Parser}, for more +information. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %yacc +Pretend the option @option{--yacc} was given, i.e., imitate Yacc, +including its naming conventions. @xref{Bison Options}, for more. +@end deffn + -@node Multiple Parsers,, Declarations, Grammar File +@node Multiple Parsers @section Multiple Parsers in the Same Program Most programs that use Bison parse only one language and therefore contain @@ -3247,15 +4234,15 @@ language with the same program? Then you need to avoid a name conflict between different definitions of @code{yyparse}, @code{yylval}, and so on. The easy way to do this is to use the option @samp{-p @var{prefix}} -(@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}). This renames the interface functions and -variables of the Bison parser to start with @var{prefix} instead of -@samp{yy}. You can use this to give each parser distinct names that do -not conflict. +(@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}). This renames the interface +functions and variables of the Bison parser to start with @var{prefix} +instead of @samp{yy}. You can use this to give each parser distinct +names that do not conflict. The precise list of symbols renamed is @code{yyparse}, @code{yylex}, -@code{yyerror}, @code{yynerrs}, @code{yylval}, @code{yychar} and -@code{yydebug}. For example, if you use @samp{-p c}, the names become -@code{cparse}, @code{clex}, and so on. +@code{yyerror}, @code{yynerrs}, @code{yylval}, @code{yylloc}, +@code{yychar} and @code{yydebug}. For example, if you use @samp{-p c}, +the names become @code{cparse}, @code{clex}, and so on. @strong{All the other variables and macros associated with Bison are not renamed.} These others are not global; there is no conflict if the same @@ -3268,7 +4255,7 @@ of the parser source file, defining @code{yyparse} as @code{@var{prefix}parse}, and so on. This effectively substitutes one name for the other in the entire parser file. -@node Interface, Algorithm, Grammar File, Top +@node Interface @chapter Parser C-Language Interface @cindex C-language interface @cindex interface @@ -3279,8 +4266,8 @@ functions that it needs to use. Keep in mind that the parser uses many C identifiers starting with @samp{yy} and @samp{YY} for internal purposes. If you use such an -identifier (aside from those in this manual) in an action or in additional -C code in the grammar file, you are likely to run into trouble. +identifier (aside from those in this manual) in an action or in epilogue +in the grammar file, you are likely to run into trouble. @menu * Parser Function:: How to call @code{yyparse} and what it returns. @@ -3288,37 +4275,86 @@ C code in the grammar file, you are likely to run into trouble. which reads tokens. * Error Reporting:: You must supply a function @code{yyerror}. * Action Features:: Special features for use in actions. +* Internationalization:: How to let the parser speak in the user's + native language. @end menu -@node Parser Function, Lexical, , Interface +@node Parser Function @section The Parser Function @code{yyparse} @findex yyparse You call the function @code{yyparse} to cause parsing to occur. This function reads tokens, executes actions, and ultimately returns when it encounters end-of-input or an unrecoverable syntax error. You can also -write an action which directs @code{yyparse} to return immediately without -reading further. +write an action which directs @code{yyparse} to return immediately +without reading further. + +@deftypefun int yyparse (void) The value returned by @code{yyparse} is 0 if parsing was successful (return is due to end-of-input). -The value is 1 if parsing failed (return is due to a syntax error). +The value is 1 if parsing failed because of invalid input, i.e., input +that contains a syntax error or that causes @code{YYABORT} to be +invoked. + +The value is 2 if parsing failed due to memory exhaustion. +@end deftypefun In an action, you can cause immediate return from @code{yyparse} by using these macros: -@table @code -@item YYACCEPT +@defmac YYACCEPT @findex YYACCEPT Return immediately with value 0 (to report success). +@end defmac -@item YYABORT +@defmac YYABORT @findex YYABORT Return immediately with value 1 (to report failure). -@end table +@end defmac + +If you use a reentrant parser, you can optionally pass additional +parameter information to it in a reentrant way. To do so, use the +declaration @code{%parse-param}: + +@deffn {Directive} %parse-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} +@findex %parse-param +Declare that an argument declared by @code{argument-declaration} is an +additional @code{yyparse} argument. +The @var{argument-declaration} is used when declaring +functions or prototypes. The last identifier in +@var{argument-declaration} must be the argument name. +@end deffn + +Here's an example. Write this in the parser: + +@example +%parse-param @{int *nastiness@} +%parse-param @{int *randomness@} +@end example + +@noindent +Then call the parser like this: + +@example +@{ + int nastiness, randomness; + @dots{} /* @r{Store proper data in @code{nastiness} and @code{randomness}.} */ + value = yyparse (&nastiness, &randomness); + @dots{} +@} +@end example + +@noindent +In the grammar actions, use expressions like this to refer to the data: + +@example +exp: @dots{} @{ @dots{}; *randomness += 1; @dots{} @} +@end example -@node Lexical, Error Reporting, Parser Function, Interface + +@node Lexical @section The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex} @findex yylex @cindex lexical analyzer @@ -3334,24 +4370,25 @@ need to arrange for the token-type macro definitions to be available there. To do this, use the @samp{-d} option when you run Bison, so that it will write these macro definitions into a separate header file @file{@var{name}.tab.h} which you can include in the other source files -that need it. @xref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}.@refill +that need it. @xref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}. @menu * Calling Convention:: How @code{yyparse} calls @code{yylex}. * Token Values:: How @code{yylex} must return the semantic value of the token it has read. -* Token Positions:: How @code{yylex} must return the text position +* Token Locations:: How @code{yylex} must return the text location (line number, etc.) of the token, if the actions want that. * Pure Calling:: How the calling convention differs in a pure parser (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}). @end menu -@node Calling Convention, Token Values, , Lexical +@node Calling Convention @subsection Calling Convention for @code{yylex} -The value that @code{yylex} returns must be the numeric code for the type -of token it has just found, or 0 for end-of-input. +The value that @code{yylex} returns must be the positive numeric code +for the type of token it has just found; a zero or negative value +signifies end-of-input. When a token is referred to in the grammar rules by a name, that name in the parser file becomes a C macro whose definition is the proper @@ -3360,8 +4397,9 @@ to indicate that type. @xref{Symbols}. When a token is referred to in the grammar rules by a character literal, the numeric code for that character is also the code for the token type. -So @code{yylex} can simply return that character code. The null character -must not be used this way, because its code is zero and that is what +So @code{yylex} can simply return that character code, possibly converted +to @code{unsigned char} to avoid sign-extension. The null character +must not be used this way, because its code is zero and that signifies end-of-input. Here is an example showing these things: @@ -3371,13 +4409,13 @@ int yylex (void) @{ @dots{} - if (c == EOF) /* Detect end of file. */ + if (c == EOF) /* Detect end-of-input. */ return 0; @dots{} if (c == '+' || c == '-') - return c; /* Assume token type for `+' is '+'. */ + return c; /* Assume token type for `+' is '+'. */ @dots{} - return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */ + return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */ @dots{} @} @end example @@ -3401,19 +4439,21 @@ the grammar file has no effect on @code{yylex}. table. The index of the token in the table is the token type's code. The name of a multicharacter token is recorded in @code{yytname} with a double-quote, the token's characters, and another double-quote. The -token's characters are not escaped in any way; they appear verbatim in -the contents of the string in the table. +token's characters are escaped as necessary to be suitable as input +to Bison. -Here's code for looking up a token in @code{yytname}, assuming that the -characters of the token are stored in @code{token_buffer}. +Here's code for looking up a multicharacter token in @code{yytname}, +assuming that the characters of the token are stored in +@code{token_buffer}, and assuming that the token does not contain any +characters like @samp{"} that require escaping. @smallexample for (i = 0; i < YYNTOKENS; i++) @{ if (yytname[i] != 0 && yytname[i][0] == '"' - && strncmp (yytname[i] + 1, token_buffer, - strlen (token_buffer)) + && ! strncmp (yytname[i] + 1, token_buffer, + strlen (token_buffer)) && yytname[i][strlen (token_buffer) + 1] == '"' && yytname[i][strlen (token_buffer) + 2] == 0) break; @@ -3421,14 +4461,14 @@ for (i = 0; i < YYNTOKENS; i++) @end smallexample The @code{yytname} table is generated only if you use the -@code{%token_table} declaration. @xref{Decl Summary}. +@code{%token-table} declaration. @xref{Decl Summary}. @end itemize -@node Token Values, Token Positions, Calling Convention, Lexical +@node Token Values @subsection Semantic Values of Tokens @vindex yylval -In an ordinary (nonreentrant) parser, the semantic value of the token must +In an ordinary (non-reentrant) parser, the semantic value of the token must be stored into the global variable @code{yylval}. When you are using just one data type for semantic values, @code{yylval} has that type. Thus, if the type is @code{int} (the default), you might write this in @@ -3437,16 +4477,17 @@ Thus, if the type is @code{int} (the default), you might write this in @example @group @dots{} - yylval = value; /* Put value onto Bison stack. */ - return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */ + yylval = value; /* Put value onto Bison stack. */ + return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */ @dots{} @end group @end example When you are using multiple data types, @code{yylval}'s type is a union -made from the @code{%union} declaration (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}). So when -you store a token's value, you must use the proper member of the union. -If the @code{%union} declaration looks like this: +made from the @code{%union} declaration (@pxref{Union Decl, ,The +Collection of Value Types}). So when you store a token's value, you +must use the proper member of the union. If the @code{%union} +declaration looks like this: @example @group @@ -3464,34 +4505,37 @@ then the code in @code{yylex} might look like this: @example @group @dots{} - yylval.intval = value; /* Put value onto Bison stack. */ - return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */ + yylval.intval = value; /* Put value onto Bison stack. */ + return INT; /* Return the type of the token. */ @dots{} @end group @end example -@node Token Positions, Pure Calling, Token Values, Lexical -@subsection Textual Positions of Tokens +@node Token Locations +@subsection Textual Locations of Tokens @vindex yylloc -If you are using the @samp{@@@var{n}}-feature (@pxref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}) in -actions to keep track of the textual locations of tokens and groupings, -then you must provide this information in @code{yylex}. The function -@code{yyparse} expects to find the textual location of a token just parsed -in the global variable @code{yylloc}. So @code{yylex} must store the -proper data in that variable. The value of @code{yylloc} is a structure -and you need only initialize the members that are going to be used by the -actions. The four members are called @code{first_line}, -@code{first_column}, @code{last_line} and @code{last_column}. Note that -the use of this feature makes the parser noticeably slower. +If you are using the @samp{@@@var{n}}-feature (@pxref{Locations, , +Tracking Locations}) in actions to keep track of the +textual locations of tokens and groupings, then you must provide this +information in @code{yylex}. The function @code{yyparse} expects to +find the textual location of a token just parsed in the global variable +@code{yylloc}. So @code{yylex} must store the proper data in that +variable. + +By default, the value of @code{yylloc} is a structure and you need only +initialize the members that are going to be used by the actions. The +four members are called @code{first_line}, @code{first_column}, +@code{last_line} and @code{last_column}. Note that the use of this +feature makes the parser noticeably slower. @tindex YYLTYPE The data type of @code{yylloc} has the name @code{YYLTYPE}. -@node Pure Calling, , Token Positions, Lexical +@node Pure Calling @subsection Calling Conventions for Pure Parsers -When you use the Bison declaration @code{%pure_parser} to request a +When you use the Bison declaration @code{%pure-parser} to request a pure, reentrant parser, the global communication variables @code{yylval} and @code{yylloc} cannot be used. (@xref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}.) In such parsers the two global variables are replaced by @@ -3511,98 +4555,60 @@ yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, YYLTYPE *llocp) @end example If the grammar file does not use the @samp{@@} constructs to refer to -textual positions, then the type @code{YYLTYPE} will not be defined. In +textual locations, then the type @code{YYLTYPE} will not be defined. In this case, omit the second argument; @code{yylex} will be called with only one argument. -@vindex YYPARSE_PARAM -If you use a reentrant parser, you can optionally pass additional -parameter information to it in a reentrant way. To do so, define the -macro @code{YYPARSE_PARAM} as a variable name. This modifies the -@code{yyparse} function to accept one argument, of type @code{void *}, -with that name. - -When you call @code{yyparse}, pass the address of an object, casting the -address to @code{void *}. The grammar actions can refer to the contents -of the object by casting the pointer value back to its proper type and -then dereferencing it. Here's an example. Write this in the parser: -@example -%@{ -struct parser_control -@{ - int nastiness; - int randomness; -@}; +If you wish to pass the additional parameter data to @code{yylex}, use +@code{%lex-param} just like @code{%parse-param} (@pxref{Parser +Function}). -#define YYPARSE_PARAM parm -%@} -@end example +@deffn {Directive} lex-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} +@findex %lex-param +Declare that @code{argument-declaration} is an additional @code{yylex} +argument declaration. +@end deffn -@noindent -Then call the parser like this: +For instance: @example -struct parser_control -@{ - int nastiness; - int randomness; -@}; - -@dots{} - -@{ - struct parser_control foo; - @dots{} /* @r{Store proper data in @code{foo}.} */ - value = yyparse ((void *) &foo); - @dots{} -@} +%parse-param @{int *nastiness@} +%lex-param @{int *nastiness@} +%parse-param @{int *randomness@} @end example @noindent -In the grammar actions, use expressions like this to refer to the data: +results in the following signature: @example -((struct parser_control *) parm)->randomness +int yylex (int *nastiness); +int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness); @end example -@vindex YYLEX_PARAM -If you wish to pass the additional parameter data to @code{yylex}, -define the macro @code{YYLEX_PARAM} just like @code{YYPARSE_PARAM}, as -shown here: +If @code{%pure-parser} is added: @example -%@{ -struct parser_control -@{ - int nastiness; - int randomness; -@}; - -#define YYPARSE_PARAM parm -#define YYLEX_PARAM parm -%@} +int yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, int *nastiness); +int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness); @end example -You should then define @code{yylex} to accept one additional -argument---the value of @code{parm}. (This makes either two or three -arguments in total, depending on whether an argument of type -@code{YYLTYPE} is passed.) You can declare the argument as a pointer to -the proper object type, or you can declare it as @code{void *} and -access the contents as shown above. +@noindent +and finally, if both @code{%pure-parser} and @code{%locations} are used: -You can use @samp{%pure_parser} to request a reentrant parser without -also using @code{YYPARSE_PARAM}. Then you should call @code{yyparse} -with no arguments, as usual. +@example +int yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, YYLTYPE *llocp, int *nastiness); +int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness); +@end example -@node Error Reporting, Action Features, Lexical, Interface +@node Error Reporting @section The Error Reporting Function @code{yyerror} @cindex error reporting function @findex yyerror @cindex parse error @cindex syntax error -The Bison parser detects a @dfn{parse error} or @dfn{syntax error} +The Bison parser detects a @dfn{syntax error} or @dfn{parse error} whenever it reads a token which cannot satisfy any syntax rule. An action in the grammar can also explicitly proclaim an error, using the macro @code{YYERROR} (@pxref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use @@ -3611,31 +4617,32 @@ in Actions}). The Bison parser expects to report the error by calling an error reporting function named @code{yyerror}, which you must supply. It is called by @code{yyparse} whenever a syntax error is found, and it -receives one argument. For a parse error, the string is normally -@w{@code{"parse error"}}. - -@findex YYERROR_VERBOSE -If you define the macro @code{YYERROR_VERBOSE} in the Bison declarations -section (@pxref{Bison Declarations, ,The Bison Declarations Section}), -then Bison provides a more verbose and specific error message string -instead of just plain @w{@code{"parse error"}}. It doesn't matter what -definition you use for @code{YYERROR_VERBOSE}, just whether you define -it. - -The parser can detect one other kind of error: stack overflow. This -happens when the input contains constructions that are very deeply +receives one argument. For a syntax error, the string is normally +@w{@code{"syntax error"}}. + +@findex %error-verbose +If you invoke the directive @code{%error-verbose} in the Bison +declarations section (@pxref{Bison Declarations, ,The Bison Declarations +Section}), then Bison provides a more verbose and specific error message +string instead of just plain @w{@code{"syntax error"}}. + +The parser can detect one other kind of error: memory exhaustion. This +can happen when the input contains constructions that are very deeply nested. It isn't likely you will encounter this, since the Bison -parser extends its stack automatically up to a very large limit. But -if overflow happens, @code{yyparse} calls @code{yyerror} in the usual -fashion, except that the argument string is @w{@code{"parser stack -overflow"}}. +parser normally extends its stack automatically up to a very large limit. But +if memory is exhausted, @code{yyparse} calls @code{yyerror} in the usual +fashion, except that the argument string is @w{@code{"memory exhausted"}}. + +In some cases diagnostics like @w{@code{"syntax error"}} are +translated automatically from English to some other language before +they are passed to @code{yyerror}. @xref{Internationalization}. The following definition suffices in simple programs: @example @group void -yyerror (char *s) +yyerror (char const *s) @{ @end group @group @@ -3649,13 +4656,71 @@ error recovery if you have written suitable error recovery grammar rules (@pxref{Error Recovery}). If recovery is impossible, @code{yyparse} will immediately return 1. +Obviously, in location tracking pure parsers, @code{yyerror} should have +an access to the current location. +This is indeed the case for the @acronym{GLR} +parsers, but not for the Yacc parser, for historical reasons. I.e., if +@samp{%locations %pure-parser} is passed then the prototypes for +@code{yyerror} are: + +@example +void yyerror (char const *msg); /* Yacc parsers. */ +void yyerror (YYLTYPE *locp, char const *msg); /* GLR parsers. */ +@end example + +If @samp{%parse-param @{int *nastiness@}} is used, then: + +@example +void yyerror (int *nastiness, char const *msg); /* Yacc parsers. */ +void yyerror (int *nastiness, char const *msg); /* GLR parsers. */ +@end example + +Finally, @acronym{GLR} and Yacc parsers share the same @code{yyerror} calling +convention for absolutely pure parsers, i.e., when the calling +convention of @code{yylex} @emph{and} the calling convention of +@code{%pure-parser} are pure. I.e.: + +@example +/* Location tracking. */ +%locations +/* Pure yylex. */ +%pure-parser +%lex-param @{int *nastiness@} +/* Pure yyparse. */ +%parse-param @{int *nastiness@} +%parse-param @{int *randomness@} +@end example + +@noindent +results in the following signatures for all the parser kinds: + +@example +int yylex (YYSTYPE *lvalp, YYLTYPE *llocp, int *nastiness); +int yyparse (int *nastiness, int *randomness); +void yyerror (YYLTYPE *locp, + int *nastiness, int *randomness, + char const *msg); +@end example + +@noindent +The prototypes are only indications of how the code produced by Bison +uses @code{yyerror}. Bison-generated code always ignores the returned +value, so @code{yyerror} can return any type, including @code{void}. +Also, @code{yyerror} can be a variadic function; that is why the +message is always passed last. + +Traditionally @code{yyerror} returns an @code{int} that is always +ignored, but this is purely for historical reasons, and @code{void} is +preferable since it more accurately describes the return type for +@code{yyerror}. + @vindex yynerrs The variable @code{yynerrs} contains the number of syntax errors -encountered so far. Normally this variable is global; but if you -request a pure parser (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}) then it is a local variable -which only the actions can access. +reported so far. Normally this variable is global; but if you +request a pure parser (@pxref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}) +then it is a local variable which only the actions can access. -@node Action Features, , Error Reporting, Interface +@node Action Features @section Special Features for Use in Actions @cindex summary, action features @cindex action features summary @@ -3663,36 +4728,43 @@ which only the actions can access. Here is a table of Bison constructs, variables and macros that are useful in actions. -@table @samp -@item $$ +@deffn {Variable} $$ Acts like a variable that contains the semantic value for the grouping made by the current rule. @xref{Actions}. +@end deffn -@item $@var{n} +@deffn {Variable} $@var{n} Acts like a variable that contains the semantic value for the @var{n}th component of the current rule. @xref{Actions}. +@end deffn -@item $<@var{typealt}>$ +@deffn {Variable} $<@var{typealt}>$ Like @code{$$} but specifies alternative @var{typealt} in the union -specified by the @code{%union} declaration. @xref{Action Types, ,Data Types of Values in Actions}. +specified by the @code{%union} declaration. @xref{Action Types, ,Data +Types of Values in Actions}. +@end deffn -@item $<@var{typealt}>@var{n} +@deffn {Variable} $<@var{typealt}>@var{n} Like @code{$@var{n}} but specifies alternative @var{typealt} in the union specified by the @code{%union} declaration. -@xref{Action Types, ,Data Types of Values in Actions}.@refill +@xref{Action Types, ,Data Types of Values in Actions}. +@end deffn -@item YYABORT; +@deffn {Macro} YYABORT; Return immediately from @code{yyparse}, indicating failure. @xref{Parser Function, ,The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}. +@end deffn -@item YYACCEPT; +@deffn {Macro} YYACCEPT; Return immediately from @code{yyparse}, indicating success. @xref{Parser Function, ,The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}. +@end deffn -@item YYBACKUP (@var{token}, @var{value}); +@deffn {Macro} YYBACKUP (@var{token}, @var{value}); @findex YYBACKUP Unshift a token. This macro is allowed only for rules that reduce a single value, and only when there is no look-ahead token. +It is also disallowed in @acronym{GLR} parsers. It installs a look-ahead token with token type @var{token} and semantic value @var{value}; then it discards the value that was going to be reduced by this rule. @@ -3703,67 +4775,168 @@ a message @samp{cannot back up} and performs ordinary error recovery. In either case, the rest of the action is not executed. +@end deffn -@item YYEMPTY +@deffn {Macro} YYEMPTY @vindex YYEMPTY Value stored in @code{yychar} when there is no look-ahead token. +@end deffn -@item YYERROR; +@deffn {Macro} YYERROR; @findex YYERROR Cause an immediate syntax error. This statement initiates error recovery just as if the parser itself had detected an error; however, it does not call @code{yyerror}, and does not print any message. If you want to print an error message, call @code{yyerror} explicitly before the @samp{YYERROR;} statement. @xref{Error Recovery}. +@end deffn -@item YYRECOVERING +@deffn {Macro} YYRECOVERING This macro stands for an expression that has the value 1 when the parser is recovering from a syntax error, and 0 the rest of the time. @xref{Error Recovery}. +@end deffn -@item yychar +@deffn {Variable} yychar Variable containing the current look-ahead token. (In a pure parser, this is actually a local variable within @code{yyparse}.) When there is no look-ahead token, the value @code{YYEMPTY} is stored in the variable. @xref{Look-Ahead, ,Look-Ahead Tokens}. +@end deffn -@item yyclearin; +@deffn {Macro} yyclearin; Discard the current look-ahead token. This is useful primarily in error rules. @xref{Error Recovery}. +@end deffn -@item yyerrok; +@deffn {Macro} yyerrok; Resume generating error messages immediately for subsequent syntax errors. This is useful primarily in error rules. @xref{Error Recovery}. +@end deffn -@item @@@var{n} -@findex @@@var{n} -Acts like a structure variable containing information on the line -numbers and column numbers of the @var{n}th component of the current -rule. The structure has four members, like this: +@deffn {Value} @@$ +@findex @@$ +Acts like a structure variable containing information on the textual location +of the grouping made by the current rule. @xref{Locations, , +Tracking Locations}. -@example -struct @{ - int first_line, last_line; - int first_column, last_column; -@}; -@end example +@c Check if those paragraphs are still useful or not. -Thus, to get the starting line number of the third component, you would -use @samp{@@3.first_line}. +@c @example +@c struct @{ +@c int first_line, last_line; +@c int first_column, last_column; +@c @}; +@c @end example -In order for the members of this structure to contain valid information, -you must make @code{yylex} supply this information about each token. -If you need only certain members, then @code{yylex} need only fill in -those members. +@c Thus, to get the starting line number of the third component, you would +@c use @samp{@@3.first_line}. -The use of this feature makes the parser noticeably slower. -@end table +@c In order for the members of this structure to contain valid information, +@c you must make @code{yylex} supply this information about each token. +@c If you need only certain members, then @code{yylex} need only fill in +@c those members. -@node Algorithm, Error Recovery, Interface, Top -@chapter The Bison Parser Algorithm -@cindex Bison parser algorithm -@cindex algorithm of parser +@c The use of this feature makes the parser noticeably slower. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Value} @@@var{n} +@findex @@@var{n} +Acts like a structure variable containing information on the textual location +of the @var{n}th component of the current rule. @xref{Locations, , +Tracking Locations}. +@end deffn + +@node Internationalization +@section Parser Internationalization +@cindex internationalization +@cindex i18n +@cindex NLS +@cindex gettext +@cindex bison-po + +A Bison-generated parser can print diagnostics, including error and +tracing messages. By default, they appear in English. However, Bison +also supports outputting diagnostics in the user's native language. +To make this work, the user should set the usual environment +variables. @xref{Users, , The User's View, gettext, GNU +@code{gettext} utilities}. For +example, the shell command @samp{export LC_ALL=fr_CA.UTF-8} might set +the user's locale to French Canadian using the @acronym{UTF}-8 +encoding. The exact set of available locales depends on the user's +installation. + +The maintainer of a package that uses a Bison-generated parser enables +the internationalization of the parser's output through the following +steps. Here we assume a package that uses @acronym{GNU} Autoconf and +@acronym{GNU} Automake. + +@enumerate +@item +@cindex bison-i18n.m4 +Into the directory containing the @acronym{GNU} Autoconf macros used +by the package---often called @file{m4}---copy the +@file{bison-i18n.m4} file installed by Bison under +@samp{share/aclocal/bison-i18n.m4} in Bison's installation directory. +For example: + +@example +cp /usr/local/share/aclocal/bison-i18n.m4 m4/bison-i18n.m4 +@end example + +@item +@findex BISON_I18N +@vindex BISON_LOCALEDIR +@vindex YYENABLE_NLS +In the top-level @file{configure.ac}, after the @code{AM_GNU_GETTEXT} +invocation, add an invocation of @code{BISON_I18N}. This macro is +defined in the file @file{bison-i18n.m4} that you copied earlier. It +causes @samp{configure} to find the value of the +@code{BISON_LOCALEDIR} variable, and it defines the source-language +symbol @code{YYENABLE_NLS} to enable translations in the +Bison-generated parser. + +@item +In the @code{main} function of your program, designate the directory +containing Bison's runtime message catalog, through a call to +@samp{bindtextdomain} with domain name @samp{bison-runtime}. +For example: + +@example +bindtextdomain ("bison-runtime", BISON_LOCALEDIR); +@end example + +Typically this appears after any other call @code{bindtextdomain +(PACKAGE, LOCALEDIR)} that your package already has. Here we rely on +@samp{BISON_LOCALEDIR} to be defined as a string through the +@file{Makefile}. + +@item +In the @file{Makefile.am} that controls the compilation of the @code{main} +function, make @samp{BISON_LOCALEDIR} available as a C preprocessor macro, +either in @samp{DEFS} or in @samp{AM_CPPFLAGS}. For example: + +@example +DEFS = @@DEFS@@ -DBISON_LOCALEDIR='"$(BISON_LOCALEDIR)"' +@end example + +or: + +@example +AM_CPPFLAGS = -DBISON_LOCALEDIR='"$(BISON_LOCALEDIR)"' +@end example + +@item +Finally, invoke the command @command{autoreconf} to generate the build +infrastructure. +@end enumerate + + +@node Algorithm +@chapter The Bison Parser Algorithm +@cindex Bison parser algorithm +@cindex algorithm of parser @cindex shifting @cindex reduction @cindex parser stack @@ -3824,10 +4997,11 @@ This kind of parser is known in the literature as a bottom-up parser. * Parser States:: The parser is a finite-state-machine with stack. * Reduce/Reduce:: When two rules are applicable in the same situation. * Mystery Conflicts:: Reduce/reduce conflicts that look unjustified. -* Stack Overflow:: What happens when stack gets full. How to avoid it. +* Generalized LR Parsing:: Parsing arbitrary context-free grammars. +* Memory Management:: What happens when memory is exhausted. How to avoid it. @end menu -@node Look-Ahead, Shift/Reduce, , Algorithm +@node Look-Ahead @section Look-Ahead Tokens @cindex look-ahead token @@ -3882,7 +5056,7 @@ doing so would produce on the stack the sequence of symbols @code{expr The current look-ahead token is stored in the variable @code{yychar}. @xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}. -@node Shift/Reduce, Precedence, Look-Ahead, Algorithm +@node Shift/Reduce @section Shift/Reduce Conflicts @cindex conflicts @cindex shift/reduce conflicts @@ -3978,7 +5152,7 @@ expr: variable ; @end example -@node Precedence, Contextual Precedence, Shift/Reduce, Algorithm +@node Precedence @section Operator Precedence @cindex operator precedence @cindex precedence of operators @@ -3995,7 +5169,7 @@ shift and when to reduce. * How Precedence:: How they work. @end menu -@node Why Precedence, Using Precedence, , Precedence +@node Why Precedence @subsection When Precedence is Needed Consider the following ambiguous grammar fragment (ambiguous because the @@ -4014,35 +5188,35 @@ expr: expr '-' expr @noindent Suppose the parser has seen the tokens @samp{1}, @samp{-} and @samp{2}; -should it reduce them via the rule for the subtraction operator? It depends -on the next token. Of course, if the next token is @samp{)}, we must -reduce; shifting is invalid because no single rule can reduce the token -sequence @w{@samp{- 2 )}} or anything starting with that. But if the next -token is @samp{*} or @samp{<}, we have a choice: either shifting or -reduction would allow the parse to complete, but with different -results. - -To decide which one Bison should do, we must consider the -results. If the next operator token @var{op} is shifted, then it -must be reduced first in order to permit another opportunity to -reduce the difference. The result is (in effect) @w{@samp{1 - (2 -@var{op} 3)}}. On the other hand, if the subtraction is reduced -before shifting @var{op}, the result is @w{@samp{(1 - 2) @var{op} -3}}. Clearly, then, the choice of shift or reduce should depend -on the relative precedence of the operators @samp{-} and -@var{op}: @samp{*} should be shifted first, but not @samp{<}. +should it reduce them via the rule for the subtraction operator? It +depends on the next token. Of course, if the next token is @samp{)}, we +must reduce; shifting is invalid because no single rule can reduce the +token sequence @w{@samp{- 2 )}} or anything starting with that. But if +the next token is @samp{*} or @samp{<}, we have a choice: either +shifting or reduction would allow the parse to complete, but with +different results. + +To decide which one Bison should do, we must consider the results. If +the next operator token @var{op} is shifted, then it must be reduced +first in order to permit another opportunity to reduce the difference. +The result is (in effect) @w{@samp{1 - (2 @var{op} 3)}}. On the other +hand, if the subtraction is reduced before shifting @var{op}, the result +is @w{@samp{(1 - 2) @var{op} 3}}. Clearly, then, the choice of shift or +reduce should depend on the relative precedence of the operators +@samp{-} and @var{op}: @samp{*} should be shifted first, but not +@samp{<}. @cindex associativity What about input such as @w{@samp{1 - 2 - 5}}; should this be -@w{@samp{(1 - 2) - 5}} or should it be @w{@samp{1 - (2 - 5)}}? For -most operators we prefer the former, which is called @dfn{left -association}. The latter alternative, @dfn{right association}, is -desirable for assignment operators. The choice of left or right -association is a matter of whether the parser chooses to shift or -reduce when the stack contains @w{@samp{1 - 2}} and the look-ahead -token is @samp{-}: shifting makes right-associativity. - -@node Using Precedence, Precedence Examples, Why Precedence, Precedence +@w{@samp{(1 - 2) - 5}} or should it be @w{@samp{1 - (2 - 5)}}? For most +operators we prefer the former, which is called @dfn{left association}. +The latter alternative, @dfn{right association}, is desirable for +assignment operators. The choice of left or right association is a +matter of whether the parser chooses to shift or reduce when the stack +contains @w{@samp{1 - 2}} and the look-ahead token is @samp{-}: shifting +makes right-associativity. + +@node Using Precedence @subsection Specifying Operator Precedence @findex %left @findex %right @@ -4063,7 +5237,7 @@ order in which they are declared. The first @code{%left} or precedence is lowest, the next such declaration declares the operators whose precedence is a little higher, and so on. -@node Precedence Examples, How Precedence, Using Precedence, Precedence +@node Precedence Examples @subsection Precedence Examples In our example, we would want the following declarations: @@ -4089,28 +5263,29 @@ declared with @code{'-'}: and so on. We assume that these tokens are more than one character long and therefore are represented by names, not character literals.) -@node How Precedence, , Precedence Examples, Precedence +@node How Precedence @subsection How Precedence Works The first effect of the precedence declarations is to assign precedence levels to the terminal symbols declared. The second effect is to assign -precedence levels to certain rules: each rule gets its precedence from the -last terminal symbol mentioned in the components. (You can also specify -explicitly the precedence of a rule. @xref{Contextual Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}.) - -Finally, the resolution of conflicts works by comparing the -precedence of the rule being considered with that of the -look-ahead token. If the token's precedence is higher, the -choice is to shift. If the rule's precedence is higher, the -choice is to reduce. If they have equal precedence, the choice -is made based on the associativity of that precedence level. The -verbose output file made by @samp{-v} (@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}) says -how each conflict was resolved. +precedence levels to certain rules: each rule gets its precedence from +the last terminal symbol mentioned in the components. (You can also +specify explicitly the precedence of a rule. @xref{Contextual +Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}.) + +Finally, the resolution of conflicts works by comparing the precedence +of the rule being considered with that of the look-ahead token. If the +token's precedence is higher, the choice is to shift. If the rule's +precedence is higher, the choice is to reduce. If they have equal +precedence, the choice is made based on the associativity of that +precedence level. The verbose output file made by @samp{-v} +(@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}) says how each conflict was +resolved. Not all rules and not all tokens have precedence. If either the rule or the look-ahead token has no precedence, then the default is to shift. -@node Contextual Precedence, Parser States, Precedence, Algorithm +@node Contextual Precedence @section Context-Dependent Precedence @cindex context-dependent precedence @cindex unary operator precedence @@ -4127,7 +5302,7 @@ The Bison precedence declarations, @code{%left}, @code{%right} and @code{%nonassoc}, can only be used once for a given token; so a token has only one precedence declared in this way. For context-dependent precedence, you need to use an additional mechanism: the @code{%prec} -modifier for rules.@refill +modifier for rules. The @code{%prec} modifier declares the precedence of a particular rule by specifying a terminal symbol whose precedence should be used for that rule. @@ -4168,7 +5343,29 @@ exp: @dots{} @end group @end example -@node Parser States, Reduce/Reduce, Contextual Precedence, Algorithm +@ifset defaultprec +If you forget to append @code{%prec UMINUS} to the rule for unary +minus, Bison silently assumes that minus has its usual precedence. +This kind of problem can be tricky to debug, since one typically +discovers the mistake only by testing the code. + +The @code{%no-default-prec;} declaration makes it easier to discover +this kind of problem systematically. It causes rules that lack a +@code{%prec} modifier to have no precedence, even if the last terminal +symbol mentioned in their components has a declared precedence. + +If @code{%no-default-prec;} is in effect, you must specify @code{%prec} +for all rules that participate in precedence conflict resolution. +Then you will see any shift/reduce conflict until you tell Bison how +to resolve it, either by changing your grammar or by adding an +explicit precedence. This will probably add declarations to the +grammar, but it helps to protect against incorrect rule precedences. + +The effect of @code{%no-default-prec;} can be reversed by giving +@code{%default-prec;}, which is the default. +@end ifset + +@node Parser States @section Parser States @cindex finite-state machine @cindex parser state @@ -4194,7 +5391,7 @@ There is one other alternative: the table can say that the look-ahead token is erroneous in the current state. This causes error processing to begin (@pxref{Error Recovery}). -@node Reduce/Reduce, Mystery Conflicts, Parser States, Algorithm +@node Reduce/Reduce @section Reduce/Reduce Conflicts @cindex reduce/reduce conflict @cindex conflicts, reduce/reduce @@ -4309,7 +5506,7 @@ redirects:redirect ; @end example -@node Mystery Conflicts, Stack Overflow, Reduce/Reduce, Algorithm +@node Mystery Conflicts @section Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts Sometimes reduce/reduce conflicts can occur that don't look warranted. @@ -4350,12 +5547,13 @@ name_list: It would seem that this grammar can be parsed with only a single token of look-ahead: when a @code{param_spec} is being read, an @code{ID} is a @code{name} if a comma or colon follows, or a @code{type} if another -@code{ID} follows. In other words, this grammar is LR(1). +@code{ID} follows. In other words, this grammar is @acronym{LR}(1). -@cindex LR(1) -@cindex LALR(1) +@cindex @acronym{LR}(1) +@cindex @acronym{LALR}(1) However, Bison, like most parser generators, cannot actually handle all -LR(1) grammars. In this grammar, two contexts, that after an @code{ID} +@acronym{LR}(1) grammars. In this grammar, two contexts, that after +an @code{ID} at the beginning of a @code{param_spec} and likewise at the beginning of a @code{return_spec}, are similar enough that Bison assumes they are the same. They appear similar because the same set of rules would be @@ -4364,11 +5562,12 @@ a @code{type}. Bison is unable to determine at that stage of processing that the rules would require different look-ahead tokens in the two contexts, so it makes a single parser state for them both. Combining the two contexts causes a conflict later. In parser terminology, this -occurrence means that the grammar is not LALR(1). +occurrence means that the grammar is not @acronym{LALR}(1). In general, it is better to fix deficiencies than to document them. But this particular deficiency is intrinsically hard to fix; parser -generators that can handle LR(1) grammars are hard to write and tend to +generators that can handle @acronym{LR}(1) grammars are hard to write +and tend to produce parsers that are very large. In practice, Bison is more useful as it is now. @@ -4417,46 +5616,159 @@ return_spec: ; @end example -@node Stack Overflow, , Mystery Conflicts, Algorithm -@section Stack Overflow, and How to Avoid It +For a more detailed exposition of @acronym{LALR}(1) parsers and parser +generators, please see: +Frank DeRemer and Thomas Pennello, Efficient Computation of +@acronym{LALR}(1) Look-Ahead Sets, @cite{@acronym{ACM} Transactions on +Programming Languages and Systems}, Vol.@: 4, No.@: 4 (October 1982), +pp.@: 615--649 @uref{http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/69622.357187}. + +@node Generalized LR Parsing +@section Generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) Parsing +@cindex @acronym{GLR} parsing +@cindex generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) parsing +@cindex ambiguous grammars +@cindex non-deterministic parsing + +Bison produces @emph{deterministic} parsers that choose uniquely +when to reduce and which reduction to apply +based on a summary of the preceding input and on one extra token of look-ahead. +As a result, normal Bison handles a proper subset of the family of +context-free languages. +Ambiguous grammars, since they have strings with more than one possible +sequence of reductions cannot have deterministic parsers in this sense. +The same is true of languages that require more than one symbol of +look-ahead, since the parser lacks the information necessary to make a +decision at the point it must be made in a shift-reduce parser. +Finally, as previously mentioned (@pxref{Mystery Conflicts}), +there are languages where Bison's particular choice of how to +summarize the input seen so far loses necessary information. + +When you use the @samp{%glr-parser} declaration in your grammar file, +Bison generates a parser that uses a different algorithm, called +Generalized @acronym{LR} (or @acronym{GLR}). A Bison @acronym{GLR} +parser uses the same basic +algorithm for parsing as an ordinary Bison parser, but behaves +differently in cases where there is a shift-reduce conflict that has not +been resolved by precedence rules (@pxref{Precedence}) or a +reduce-reduce conflict. When a @acronym{GLR} parser encounters such a +situation, it +effectively @emph{splits} into a several parsers, one for each possible +shift or reduction. These parsers then proceed as usual, consuming +tokens in lock-step. Some of the stacks may encounter other conflicts +and split further, with the result that instead of a sequence of states, +a Bison @acronym{GLR} parsing stack is what is in effect a tree of states. + +In effect, each stack represents a guess as to what the proper parse +is. Additional input may indicate that a guess was wrong, in which case +the appropriate stack silently disappears. Otherwise, the semantics +actions generated in each stack are saved, rather than being executed +immediately. When a stack disappears, its saved semantic actions never +get executed. When a reduction causes two stacks to become equivalent, +their sets of semantic actions are both saved with the state that +results from the reduction. We say that two stacks are equivalent +when they both represent the same sequence of states, +and each pair of corresponding states represents a +grammar symbol that produces the same segment of the input token +stream. + +Whenever the parser makes a transition from having multiple +states to having one, it reverts to the normal @acronym{LALR}(1) parsing +algorithm, after resolving and executing the saved-up actions. +At this transition, some of the states on the stack will have semantic +values that are sets (actually multisets) of possible actions. The +parser tries to pick one of the actions by first finding one whose rule +has the highest dynamic precedence, as set by the @samp{%dprec} +declaration. Otherwise, if the alternative actions are not ordered by +precedence, but there the same merging function is declared for both +rules by the @samp{%merge} declaration, +Bison resolves and evaluates both and then calls the merge function on +the result. Otherwise, it reports an ambiguity. + +It is possible to use a data structure for the @acronym{GLR} parsing tree that +permits the processing of any @acronym{LALR}(1) grammar in linear time (in the +size of the input), any unambiguous (not necessarily +@acronym{LALR}(1)) grammar in +quadratic worst-case time, and any general (possibly ambiguous) +context-free grammar in cubic worst-case time. However, Bison currently +uses a simpler data structure that requires time proportional to the +length of the input times the maximum number of stacks required for any +prefix of the input. Thus, really ambiguous or non-deterministic +grammars can require exponential time and space to process. Such badly +behaving examples, however, are not generally of practical interest. +Usually, non-determinism in a grammar is local---the parser is ``in +doubt'' only for a few tokens at a time. Therefore, the current data +structure should generally be adequate. On @acronym{LALR}(1) portions of a +grammar, in particular, it is only slightly slower than with the default +Bison parser. + +For a more detailed exposition of @acronym{GLR} parsers, please see: Elizabeth +Scott, Adrian Johnstone and Shamsa Sadaf Hussain, Tomita-Style +Generalised @acronym{LR} Parsers, Royal Holloway, University of +London, Department of Computer Science, TR-00-12, +@uref{http://www.cs.rhul.ac.uk/research/languages/publications/tomita_style_1.ps}, +(2000-12-24). + +@node Memory Management +@section Memory Management, and How to Avoid Memory Exhaustion +@cindex memory exhaustion +@cindex memory management @cindex stack overflow @cindex parser stack overflow @cindex overflow of parser stack -The Bison parser stack can overflow if too many tokens are shifted and +The Bison parser stack can run out of memory if too many tokens are shifted and not reduced. When this happens, the parser function @code{yyparse} -returns a nonzero value, pausing only to call @code{yyerror} to report -the overflow. +calls @code{yyerror} and then returns 2. + +Because Bison parsers have growing stacks, hitting the upper limit +usually results from using a right recursion instead of a left +recursion, @xref{Recursion, ,Recursive Rules}. @vindex YYMAXDEPTH By defining the macro @code{YYMAXDEPTH}, you can control how deep the -parser stack can become before a stack overflow occurs. Define the +parser stack can become before memory is exhausted. Define the macro with a value that is an integer. This value is the maximum number of tokens that can be shifted (and not reduced) before overflow. -It must be a constant expression whose value is known at compile time. The stack space allowed is not necessarily allocated. If you specify a -large value for @code{YYMAXDEPTH}, the parser actually allocates a small +large value for @code{YYMAXDEPTH}, the parser normally allocates a small stack at first, and then makes it bigger by stages as needed. This increasing allocation happens automatically and silently. Therefore, you do not need to make @code{YYMAXDEPTH} painfully small merely to save space for ordinary inputs that do not need much stack. +However, do not allow @code{YYMAXDEPTH} to be a value so large that +arithmetic overflow could occur when calculating the size of the stack +space. Also, do not allow @code{YYMAXDEPTH} to be less than +@code{YYINITDEPTH}. + @cindex default stack limit The default value of @code{YYMAXDEPTH}, if you do not define it, is 10000. @vindex YYINITDEPTH You can control how much stack is allocated initially by defining the -macro @code{YYINITDEPTH}. This value too must be a compile-time -constant integer. The default is 200. +macro @code{YYINITDEPTH} to a positive integer. For the C +@acronym{LALR}(1) parser, this value must be a compile-time constant +unless you are assuming C99 or some other target language or compiler +that allows variable-length arrays. The default is 200. + +Do not allow @code{YYINITDEPTH} to be greater than @code{YYMAXDEPTH}. -@node Error Recovery, Context Dependency, Algorithm, Top +@c FIXME: C++ output. +Because of semantical differences between C and C++, the +@acronym{LALR}(1) parsers in C produced by Bison cannot grow when compiled +by C++ compilers. In this precise case (compiling a C parser as C++) you are +suggested to grow @code{YYINITDEPTH}. The Bison maintainers hope to fix +this deficiency in a future release. + +@node Error Recovery @chapter Error Recovery @cindex error recovery @cindex recovery from errors -It is not usually acceptable to have a program terminate on a parse +It is not usually acceptable to have a program terminate on a syntax error. For example, a compiler should recover sufficiently to parse the rest of the input file and check it for errors; a calculator should accept another expression. @@ -4498,22 +5810,24 @@ will be tokens to read before the next newline. So the rule is not applicable in the ordinary way. But Bison can force the situation to fit the rule, by discarding part of -the semantic context and part of the input. First it discards states and -objects from the stack until it gets back to a state in which the +the semantic context and part of the input. First it discards states +and objects from the stack until it gets back to a state in which the @code{error} token is acceptable. (This means that the subexpressions -already parsed are discarded, back to the last complete @code{stmnts}.) At -this point the @code{error} token can be shifted. Then, if the old +already parsed are discarded, back to the last complete @code{stmnts}.) +At this point the @code{error} token can be shifted. Then, if the old look-ahead token is not acceptable to be shifted next, the parser reads tokens and discards them until it finds a token which is acceptable. In -this example, Bison reads and discards input until the next newline -so that the fourth rule can apply. +this example, Bison reads and discards input until the next newline so +that the fourth rule can apply. Note that discarded symbols are +possible sources of memory leaks, see @ref{Destructor Decl, , Freeing +Discarded Symbols}, for a means to reclaim this memory. The choice of error rules in the grammar is a choice of strategies for error recovery. A simple and useful strategy is simply to skip the rest of the current input line or current statement if an error is detected: @example -stmnt: error ';' /* on error, skip until ';' is read */ +stmnt: error ';' /* On error, skip until ';' is read. */ @end example It is also useful to recover to the matching close-delimiter of an @@ -4557,7 +5871,7 @@ this is unacceptable, then the macro @code{yyclearin} may be used to clear this token. Write the statement @samp{yyclearin;} in the error rule's action. -For example, suppose that on a parse error, an error handling routine is +For example, suppose that on a syntax error, an error handling routine is called that advances the input stream to some point where parsing should once again commence. The next symbol returned by the lexical scanner is probably correct. The previous look-ahead token ought to be discarded @@ -4569,7 +5883,7 @@ value 1 when the parser is recovering from a syntax error, and 0 the rest of the time. A value of 1 indicates that error messages are currently suppressed for new syntax errors. -@node Context Dependency, Debugging, Error Recovery, Top +@node Context Dependency @chapter Handling Context Dependencies The Bison paradigm is to parse tokens first, then group them into larger @@ -4588,7 +5902,7 @@ languages. (Actually, ``kludge'' means any technique that gets its job done but is neither clean nor robust.) -@node Semantic Tokens, Lexical Tie-ins, , Context Dependency +@node Semantic Tokens @section Semantic Info in Token Types The C language has a context dependency: the way an identifier is used @@ -4602,7 +5916,7 @@ This looks like a function call statement, but if @code{foo} is a typedef name, then this is actually a declaration of @code{x}. How can a Bison parser for C decide how to parse this input? -The method used in GNU C is to have two different token types, +The method used in @acronym{GNU} C is to have two different token types, @code{IDENTIFIER} and @code{TYPENAME}. When @code{yylex} finds an identifier, it looks up the current declaration of the identifier in order to decide which token type to return: @code{TYPENAME} if the identifier is @@ -4623,19 +5937,23 @@ redeclare a typedef name provided an explicit type has been specified earlier: @example -typedef int foo, bar, lose; -static foo (bar); /* @r{redeclare @code{bar} as static variable} */ -static int foo (lose); /* @r{redeclare @code{foo} as function} */ +typedef int foo, bar; +int baz (void) +@{ + static bar (bar); /* @r{redeclare @code{bar} as static variable} */ + extern foo foo (foo); /* @r{redeclare @code{foo} as function} */ + return foo (bar); +@} @end example Unfortunately, the name being declared is separated from the declaration construct itself by a complicated syntactic structure---the ``declarator''. As a result, part of the Bison parser for C needs to be duplicated, with -all the nonterminal names changed: once for parsing a declaration in which -a typedef name can be redefined, and once for parsing a declaration in -which that can't be done. Here is a part of the duplication, with actions -omitted for brevity: +all the nonterminal names changed: once for parsing a declaration in +which a typedef name can be redefined, and once for parsing a +declaration in which that can't be done. Here is a part of the +duplication, with actions omitted for brevity: @example initdcl: @@ -4663,7 +5981,7 @@ here the information is global, and is used for other purposes in the program. A true lexical tie-in has a special-purpose flag controlled by the syntactic context. -@node Lexical Tie-ins, Tie-in Recovery, Semantic Tokens, Context Dependency +@node Lexical Tie-ins @section Lexical Tie-ins @cindex lexical tie-in @@ -4680,7 +5998,9 @@ as an identifier if it appears in that context. Here is how you can do it: @example @group %@{ -int hexflag; + int hexflag; + int yylex (void); + void yyerror (char const *); %@} %% @dots{} @@ -4712,12 +6032,11 @@ Here we assume that @code{yylex} looks at the value of @code{hexflag}; when it is nonzero, all integers are parsed in hexadecimal, and tokens starting with letters are parsed as integers if possible. -The declaration of @code{hexflag} shown in the C declarations section of -the parser file is needed to make it accessible to the actions -(@pxref{C Declarations, ,The C Declarations Section}). You must also write the code in @code{yylex} -to obey the flag. +The declaration of @code{hexflag} shown in the prologue of the parser file +is needed to make it accessible to the actions (@pxref{Prologue, ,The Prologue}). +You must also write the code in @code{yylex} to obey the flag. -@node Tie-in Recovery, , Lexical Tie-ins, Context Dependency +@node Tie-in Recovery @section Lexical Tie-ins and Error Recovery Lexical tie-ins make strict demands on any error recovery rules you have. @@ -4772,9 +6091,422 @@ make sure your error recovery rules are not of this kind. Each rule must be such that you can be sure that it always will, or always won't, have to clear the flag. -@node Debugging, Invocation, Context Dependency, Top +@c ================================================== Debugging Your Parser + +@node Debugging @chapter Debugging Your Parser -@findex YYDEBUG + +Developing a parser can be a challenge, especially if you don't +understand the algorithm (@pxref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser +Algorithm}). Even so, sometimes a detailed description of the automaton +can help (@pxref{Understanding, , Understanding Your Parser}), or +tracing the execution of the parser can give some insight on why it +behaves improperly (@pxref{Tracing, , Tracing Your Parser}). + +@menu +* Understanding:: Understanding the structure of your parser. +* Tracing:: Tracing the execution of your parser. +@end menu + +@node Understanding +@section Understanding Your Parser + +As documented elsewhere (@pxref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm}) +Bison parsers are @dfn{shift/reduce automata}. In some cases (much more +frequent than one would hope), looking at this automaton is required to +tune or simply fix a parser. Bison provides two different +representation of it, either textually or graphically (as a @acronym{VCG} +file). + +The textual file is generated when the options @option{--report} or +@option{--verbose} are specified, see @xref{Invocation, , Invoking +Bison}. Its name is made by removing @samp{.tab.c} or @samp{.c} from +the parser output file name, and adding @samp{.output} instead. +Therefore, if the input file is @file{foo.y}, then the parser file is +called @file{foo.tab.c} by default. As a consequence, the verbose +output file is called @file{foo.output}. + +The following grammar file, @file{calc.y}, will be used in the sequel: + +@example +%token NUM STR +%left '+' '-' +%left '*' +%% +exp: exp '+' exp + | exp '-' exp + | exp '*' exp + | exp '/' exp + | NUM + ; +useless: STR; +%% +@end example + +@command{bison} reports: + +@example +calc.y: warning: 1 useless nonterminal and 1 useless rule +calc.y:11.1-7: warning: useless nonterminal: useless +calc.y:11.10-12: warning: useless rule: useless: STR +calc.y: conflicts: 7 shift/reduce +@end example + +When given @option{--report=state}, in addition to @file{calc.tab.c}, it +creates a file @file{calc.output} with contents detailed below. The +order of the output and the exact presentation might vary, but the +interpretation is the same. + +The first section includes details on conflicts that were solved thanks +to precedence and/or associativity: + +@example +Conflict in state 8 between rule 2 and token '+' resolved as reduce. +Conflict in state 8 between rule 2 and token '-' resolved as reduce. +Conflict in state 8 between rule 2 and token '*' resolved as shift. +@exdent @dots{} +@end example + +@noindent +The next section lists states that still have conflicts. + +@example +State 8 conflicts: 1 shift/reduce +State 9 conflicts: 1 shift/reduce +State 10 conflicts: 1 shift/reduce +State 11 conflicts: 4 shift/reduce +@end example + +@noindent +@cindex token, useless +@cindex useless token +@cindex nonterminal, useless +@cindex useless nonterminal +@cindex rule, useless +@cindex useless rule +The next section reports useless tokens, nonterminal and rules. Useless +nonterminals and rules are removed in order to produce a smaller parser, +but useless tokens are preserved, since they might be used by the +scanner (note the difference between ``useless'' and ``not used'' +below): + +@example +Useless nonterminals: + useless + +Terminals which are not used: + STR + +Useless rules: +#6 useless: STR; +@end example + +@noindent +The next section reproduces the exact grammar that Bison used: + +@example +Grammar + + Number, Line, Rule + 0 5 $accept -> exp $end + 1 5 exp -> exp '+' exp + 2 6 exp -> exp '-' exp + 3 7 exp -> exp '*' exp + 4 8 exp -> exp '/' exp + 5 9 exp -> NUM +@end example + +@noindent +and reports the uses of the symbols: + +@example +Terminals, with rules where they appear + +$end (0) 0 +'*' (42) 3 +'+' (43) 1 +'-' (45) 2 +'/' (47) 4 +error (256) +NUM (258) 5 + +Nonterminals, with rules where they appear + +$accept (8) + on left: 0 +exp (9) + on left: 1 2 3 4 5, on right: 0 1 2 3 4 +@end example + +@noindent +@cindex item +@cindex pointed rule +@cindex rule, pointed +Bison then proceeds onto the automaton itself, describing each state +with it set of @dfn{items}, also known as @dfn{pointed rules}. Each +item is a production rule together with a point (marked by @samp{.}) +that the input cursor. + +@example +state 0 + + $accept -> . exp $ (rule 0) + + NUM shift, and go to state 1 + + exp go to state 2 +@end example + +This reads as follows: ``state 0 corresponds to being at the very +beginning of the parsing, in the initial rule, right before the start +symbol (here, @code{exp}). When the parser returns to this state right +after having reduced a rule that produced an @code{exp}, the control +flow jumps to state 2. If there is no such transition on a nonterminal +symbol, and the look-ahead is a @code{NUM}, then this token is shifted on +the parse stack, and the control flow jumps to state 1. Any other +look-ahead triggers a syntax error.'' + +@cindex core, item set +@cindex item set core +@cindex kernel, item set +@cindex item set core +Even though the only active rule in state 0 seems to be rule 0, the +report lists @code{NUM} as a look-ahead token because @code{NUM} can be +at the beginning of any rule deriving an @code{exp}. By default Bison +reports the so-called @dfn{core} or @dfn{kernel} of the item set, but if +you want to see more detail you can invoke @command{bison} with +@option{--report=itemset} to list all the items, include those that can +be derived: + +@example +state 0 + + $accept -> . exp $ (rule 0) + exp -> . exp '+' exp (rule 1) + exp -> . exp '-' exp (rule 2) + exp -> . exp '*' exp (rule 3) + exp -> . exp '/' exp (rule 4) + exp -> . NUM (rule 5) + + NUM shift, and go to state 1 + + exp go to state 2 +@end example + +@noindent +In the state 1... + +@example +state 1 + + exp -> NUM . (rule 5) + + $default reduce using rule 5 (exp) +@end example + +@noindent +the rule 5, @samp{exp: NUM;}, is completed. Whatever the look-ahead token +(@samp{$default}), the parser will reduce it. If it was coming from +state 0, then, after this reduction it will return to state 0, and will +jump to state 2 (@samp{exp: go to state 2}). + +@example +state 2 + + $accept -> exp . $ (rule 0) + exp -> exp . '+' exp (rule 1) + exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2) + exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3) + exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4) + + $ shift, and go to state 3 + '+' shift, and go to state 4 + '-' shift, and go to state 5 + '*' shift, and go to state 6 + '/' shift, and go to state 7 +@end example + +@noindent +In state 2, the automaton can only shift a symbol. For instance, +because of the item @samp{exp -> exp . '+' exp}, if the look-ahead if +@samp{+}, it will be shifted on the parse stack, and the automaton +control will jump to state 4, corresponding to the item @samp{exp -> exp +'+' . exp}. Since there is no default action, any other token than +those listed above will trigger a syntax error. + +The state 3 is named the @dfn{final state}, or the @dfn{accepting +state}: + +@example +state 3 + + $accept -> exp $ . (rule 0) + + $default accept +@end example + +@noindent +the initial rule is completed (the start symbol and the end +of input were read), the parsing exits successfully. + +The interpretation of states 4 to 7 is straightforward, and is left to +the reader. + +@example +state 4 + + exp -> exp '+' . exp (rule 1) + + NUM shift, and go to state 1 + + exp go to state 8 + +state 5 + + exp -> exp '-' . exp (rule 2) + + NUM shift, and go to state 1 + + exp go to state 9 + +state 6 + + exp -> exp '*' . exp (rule 3) + + NUM shift, and go to state 1 + + exp go to state 10 + +state 7 + + exp -> exp '/' . exp (rule 4) + + NUM shift, and go to state 1 + + exp go to state 11 +@end example + +As was announced in beginning of the report, @samp{State 8 conflicts: +1 shift/reduce}: + +@example +state 8 + + exp -> exp . '+' exp (rule 1) + exp -> exp '+' exp . (rule 1) + exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2) + exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3) + exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4) + + '*' shift, and go to state 6 + '/' shift, and go to state 7 + + '/' [reduce using rule 1 (exp)] + $default reduce using rule 1 (exp) +@end example + +Indeed, there are two actions associated to the look-ahead @samp{/}: +either shifting (and going to state 7), or reducing rule 1. The +conflict means that either the grammar is ambiguous, or the parser lacks +information to make the right decision. Indeed the grammar is +ambiguous, as, since we did not specify the precedence of @samp{/}, the +sentence @samp{NUM + NUM / NUM} can be parsed as @samp{NUM + (NUM / +NUM)}, which corresponds to shifting @samp{/}, or as @samp{(NUM + NUM) / +NUM}, which corresponds to reducing rule 1. + +Because in @acronym{LALR}(1) parsing a single decision can be made, Bison +arbitrarily chose to disable the reduction, see @ref{Shift/Reduce, , +Shift/Reduce Conflicts}. Discarded actions are reported in between +square brackets. + +Note that all the previous states had a single possible action: either +shifting the next token and going to the corresponding state, or +reducing a single rule. In the other cases, i.e., when shifting +@emph{and} reducing is possible or when @emph{several} reductions are +possible, the look-ahead is required to select the action. State 8 is +one such state: if the look-ahead is @samp{*} or @samp{/} then the action +is shifting, otherwise the action is reducing rule 1. In other words, +the first two items, corresponding to rule 1, are not eligible when the +look-ahead token is @samp{*}, since we specified that @samp{*} has higher +precedence than @samp{+}. More generally, some items are eligible only +with some set of possible look-ahead tokens. When run with +@option{--report=look-ahead}, Bison specifies these look-ahead tokens: + +@example +state 8 + + exp -> exp . '+' exp [$, '+', '-', '/'] (rule 1) + exp -> exp '+' exp . [$, '+', '-', '/'] (rule 1) + exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2) + exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3) + exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4) + + '*' shift, and go to state 6 + '/' shift, and go to state 7 + + '/' [reduce using rule 1 (exp)] + $default reduce using rule 1 (exp) +@end example + +The remaining states are similar: + +@example +state 9 + + exp -> exp . '+' exp (rule 1) + exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2) + exp -> exp '-' exp . (rule 2) + exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3) + exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4) + + '*' shift, and go to state 6 + '/' shift, and go to state 7 + + '/' [reduce using rule 2 (exp)] + $default reduce using rule 2 (exp) + +state 10 + + exp -> exp . '+' exp (rule 1) + exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2) + exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3) + exp -> exp '*' exp . (rule 3) + exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4) + + '/' shift, and go to state 7 + + '/' [reduce using rule 3 (exp)] + $default reduce using rule 3 (exp) + +state 11 + + exp -> exp . '+' exp (rule 1) + exp -> exp . '-' exp (rule 2) + exp -> exp . '*' exp (rule 3) + exp -> exp . '/' exp (rule 4) + exp -> exp '/' exp . (rule 4) + + '+' shift, and go to state 4 + '-' shift, and go to state 5 + '*' shift, and go to state 6 + '/' shift, and go to state 7 + + '+' [reduce using rule 4 (exp)] + '-' [reduce using rule 4 (exp)] + '*' [reduce using rule 4 (exp)] + '/' [reduce using rule 4 (exp)] + $default reduce using rule 4 (exp) +@end example + +@noindent +Observe that state 11 contains conflicts not only due to the lack of +precedence of @samp{/} with respect to @samp{+}, @samp{-}, and +@samp{*}, but also because the +associativity of @samp{/} is not specified. + + +@node Tracing +@section Tracing Your Parser @findex yydebug @cindex debugging @cindex tracing the parser @@ -4782,16 +6514,40 @@ clear the flag. If a Bison grammar compiles properly but doesn't do what you want when it runs, the @code{yydebug} parser-trace feature can help you figure out why. -To enable compilation of trace facilities, you must define the macro -@code{YYDEBUG} when you compile the parser. You could use +There are several means to enable compilation of trace facilities: + +@table @asis +@item the macro @code{YYDEBUG} +@findex YYDEBUG +Define the macro @code{YYDEBUG} to a nonzero value when you compile the +parser. This is compliant with @acronym{POSIX} Yacc. You could use @samp{-DYYDEBUG=1} as a compiler option or you could put @samp{#define -YYDEBUG 1} in the C declarations section of the grammar file -(@pxref{C Declarations, ,The C Declarations Section}). Alternatively, use the @samp{-t} option when -you run Bison (@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}). We always define @code{YYDEBUG} so that -debugging is always possible. +YYDEBUG 1} in the prologue of the grammar file (@pxref{Prologue, , The +Prologue}). + +@item the option @option{-t}, @option{--debug} +Use the @samp{-t} option when you run Bison (@pxref{Invocation, +,Invoking Bison}). This is @acronym{POSIX} compliant too. + +@item the directive @samp{%debug} +@findex %debug +Add the @code{%debug} directive (@pxref{Decl Summary, ,Bison +Declaration Summary}). This is a Bison extension, which will prove +useful when Bison will output parsers for languages that don't use a +preprocessor. Unless @acronym{POSIX} and Yacc portability matter to +you, this is +the preferred solution. +@end table -The trace facility uses @code{stderr}, so you must add @w{@code{#include -}} to the C declarations section unless it is already there. +We suggest that you always enable the debug option so that debugging is +always possible. + +The trace facility outputs messages with macro calls of the form +@code{YYFPRINTF (stderr, @var{format}, @var{args})} where +@var{format} and @var{args} are the usual @code{printf} format and +arguments. If you define @code{YYDEBUG} to a nonzero value but do not +define @code{YYFPRINTF}, @code{} is automatically included +and @code{YYPRINTF} is defined to @code{fprintf}. Once you have compiled the program with trace facilities, the way to request a trace is to store a nonzero value in the variable @code{yydebug}. @@ -4816,13 +6572,14 @@ of the state stack afterward. @end itemize To make sense of this information, it helps to refer to the listing file -produced by the Bison @samp{-v} option (@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking Bison}). This file -shows the meaning of each state in terms of positions in various rules, and -also what each state will do with each possible input token. As you read -the successive trace messages, you can see that the parser is functioning -according to its specification in the listing file. Eventually you will -arrive at the place where something undesirable happens, and you will see -which parts of the grammar are to blame. +produced by the Bison @samp{-v} option (@pxref{Invocation, ,Invoking +Bison}). This file shows the meaning of each state in terms of +positions in various rules, and also what each state will do with each +possible input token. As you read the successive trace messages, you +can see that the parser is functioning according to its specification in +the listing file. Eventually you will arrive at the place where +something undesirable happens, and you will see which parts of the +grammar are to blame. The parser file is a C program and you can use C debuggers on it, but it's not easy to interpret what it is doing. The parser function is a @@ -4842,19 +6599,26 @@ Here is an example of @code{YYPRINT} suitable for the multi-function calculator (@pxref{Mfcalc Decl, ,Declarations for @code{mfcalc}}): @smallexample -#define YYPRINT(file, type, value) yyprint (file, type, value) +%@{ + static void print_token_value (FILE *, int, YYSTYPE); + #define YYPRINT(file, type, value) print_token_value (file, type, value) +%@} + +@dots{} %% @dots{} %% @dots{} static void -yyprint (FILE *file, int type, YYSTYPE value) +print_token_value (FILE *file, int type, YYSTYPE value) @{ if (type == VAR) - fprintf (file, " %s", value.tptr->name); + fprintf (file, "%s", value.tptr->name); else if (type == NUM) - fprintf (file, " %d", value.val); + fprintf (file, "%d", value.val); @} @end smallexample -@node Invocation, Table of Symbols, Debugging, Top +@c ================================================= Invoking Bison + +@node Invocation @chapter Invoking Bison @cindex invoking Bison @cindex Bison invocation @@ -4868,19 +6632,43 @@ bison @var{infile} Here @var{infile} is the grammar file name, which usually ends in @samp{.y}. The parser file's name is made by replacing the @samp{.y} -with @samp{.tab.c}. Thus, the @samp{bison foo.y} filename yields -@file{foo.tab.c}, and the @samp{bison hack/foo.y} filename yields -@file{hack/foo.tab.c}.@refill +with @samp{.tab.c} and removing any leading directory. Thus, the +@samp{bison foo.y} file name yields +@file{foo.tab.c}, and the @samp{bison hack/foo.y} file name yields +@file{foo.tab.c}. It's also possible, in case you are writing +C++ code instead of C in your grammar file, to name it @file{foo.ypp} +or @file{foo.y++}. Then, the output files will take an extension like +the given one as input (respectively @file{foo.tab.cpp} and +@file{foo.tab.c++}). +This feature takes effect with all options that manipulate file names like +@samp{-o} or @samp{-d}. + +For example : + +@example +bison -d @var{infile.yxx} +@end example +@noindent +will produce @file{infile.tab.cxx} and @file{infile.tab.hxx}, and + +@example +bison -d -o @var{output.c++} @var{infile.y} +@end example +@noindent +will produce @file{output.c++} and @file{outfile.h++}. + +For compatibility with @acronym{POSIX}, the standard Bison +distribution also contains a shell script called @command{yacc} that +invokes Bison with the @option{-y} option. @menu * Bison Options:: All the options described in detail, - in alphabetical order by short options. -* Environment Variables:: Variables which affect Bison execution. + in alphabetical order by short options. * Option Cross Key:: Alphabetical list of long options. -* VMS Invocation:: Bison command syntax on VMS. +* Yacc Library:: Yacc-compatible @code{yylex} and @code{main}. @end menu -@node Bison Options, Environment Variables, , Invocation +@node Bison Options @section Bison Options Bison supports both traditional single-letter options and mnemonic long @@ -4894,25 +6682,59 @@ Here is a list of options that can be used with Bison, alphabetized by short option. It is followed by a cross key alphabetized by long option. -@table @samp -@item -b @var{file-prefix} -@itemx --file-prefix=@var{prefix} -Specify a prefix to use for all Bison output file names. The names are -chosen as if the input file were named @file{@var{prefix}.c}. +@c Please, keep this ordered as in `bison --help'. +@noindent +Operations modes: +@table @option +@item -h +@itemx --help +Print a summary of the command-line options to Bison and exit. -@item -d -@itemx --defines -Write an extra output file containing macro definitions for the token -type names defined in the grammar and the semantic value type -@code{YYSTYPE}, as well as a few @code{extern} variable declarations. +@item -V +@itemx --version +Print the version number of Bison and exit. -If the parser output file is named @file{@var{name}.c} then this file -is named @file{@var{name}.h}.@refill +@item --print-localedir +Print the name of the directory containing locale-dependent data. + +@need 1750 +@item -y +@itemx --yacc +Equivalent to @samp{-o y.tab.c}; the parser output file is called +@file{y.tab.c}, and the other outputs are called @file{y.output} and +@file{y.tab.h}. The purpose of this option is to imitate Yacc's output +file name conventions. Thus, the following shell script can substitute +for Yacc, and the Bison distribution contains such a script for +compatibility with @acronym{POSIX}: + +@example +#! /bin/sh +bison -y "$@@" +@end example +@end table + +@noindent +Tuning the parser: + +@table @option +@item -S @var{file} +@itemx --skeleton=@var{file} +Specify the skeleton to use. You probably don't need this option unless +you are developing Bison. + +@item -t +@itemx --debug +In the parser file, define the macro @code{YYDEBUG} to 1 if it is not +already defined, so that the debugging facilities are compiled. +@xref{Tracing, ,Tracing Your Parser}. + +@item --locations +Pretend that @code{%locations} was specified. @xref{Decl Summary}. -This output file is essential if you wish to put the definition of -@code{yylex} in a separate source file, because @code{yylex} needs to -be able to refer to token type codes and the variable -@code{yylval}. @xref{Token Values, ,Semantic Values of Tokens}.@refill +@item -p @var{prefix} +@itemx --name-prefix=@var{prefix} +Pretend that @code{%name-prefix="@var{prefix}"} was specified. +@xref{Decl Summary}. @item -l @itemx --no-lines @@ -4924,107 +6746,78 @@ parser file, treating it as an independent source file in its own right. @item -n @itemx --no-parser -Do not include any C code in the parser file; generate tables only. The -parser file contains just @code{#define} directives and static variable -declarations. +Pretend that @code{%no-parser} was specified. @xref{Decl Summary}. -This option also tells Bison to write the C code for the grammar actions -into a file named @file{@var{filename}.act}, in the form of a -brace-surrounded body fit for a @code{switch} statement. +@item -k +@itemx --token-table +Pretend that @code{%token-table} was specified. @xref{Decl Summary}. +@end table -@item -o @var{outfile} -@itemx --output-file=@var{outfile} -Specify the name @var{outfile} for the parser file. +@noindent +Adjust the output: -The other output files' names are constructed from @var{outfile} -as described under the @samp{-v} and @samp{-d} options. +@table @option +@item -d +@itemx --defines +Pretend that @code{%defines} was specified, i.e., write an extra output +file containing macro definitions for the token type names defined in +the grammar, as well as a few other declarations. @xref{Decl Summary}. -@item -p @var{prefix} -@itemx --name-prefix=@var{prefix} -Rename the external symbols used in the parser so that they start with -@var{prefix} instead of @samp{yy}. The precise list of symbols renamed -is @code{yyparse}, @code{yylex}, @code{yyerror}, @code{yynerrs}, -@code{yylval}, @code{yychar} and @code{yydebug}. +@item --defines=@var{defines-file} +Same as above, but save in the file @var{defines-file}. -For example, if you use @samp{-p c}, the names become @code{cparse}, -@code{clex}, and so on. +@item -b @var{file-prefix} +@itemx --file-prefix=@var{prefix} +Pretend that @code{%verbose} was specified, i.e, specify prefix to use +for all Bison output file names. @xref{Decl Summary}. -@xref{Multiple Parsers, ,Multiple Parsers in the Same Program}. +@item -r @var{things} +@itemx --report=@var{things} +Write an extra output file containing verbose description of the comma +separated list of @var{things} among: -@item -r -@itemx --raw -Pretend that @code{%raw} was specified. @xref{Decl Summary}. +@table @code +@item state +Description of the grammar, conflicts (resolved and unresolved), and +@acronym{LALR} automaton. -@item -t -@itemx --debug -Output a definition of the macro @code{YYDEBUG} into the parser file, -so that the debugging facilities are compiled. @xref{Debugging, ,Debugging Your Parser}. +@item look-ahead +Implies @code{state} and augments the description of the automaton with +each rule's look-ahead set. -@item -v -@itemx --verbose -Write an extra output file containing verbose descriptions of the -parser states and what is done for each type of look-ahead token in -that state. - -This file also describes all the conflicts, both those resolved by -operator precedence and the unresolved ones. - -The file's name is made by removing @samp{.tab.c} or @samp{.c} from -the parser output file name, and adding @samp{.output} instead.@refill - -Therefore, if the input file is @file{foo.y}, then the parser file is -called @file{foo.tab.c} by default. As a consequence, the verbose -output file is called @file{foo.output}.@refill - -@item -V -@itemx --version -Print the version number of Bison and exit. - -@item -h -@itemx --help -Print a summary of the command-line options to Bison and exit. - -@need 1750 -@item -y -@itemx --yacc -@itemx --fixed-output-files -Equivalent to @samp{-o y.tab.c}; the parser output file is called -@file{y.tab.c}, and the other outputs are called @file{y.output} and -@file{y.tab.h}. The purpose of this option is to imitate Yacc's output -file name conventions. Thus, the following shell script can substitute -for Yacc:@refill - -@example -bison -y $* -@end example +@item itemset +Implies @code{state} and augments the description of the automaton with +the full set of items for each state, instead of its core only. @end table -@node Environment Variables, Option Cross Key, Bison Options, Invocation -@section Environment Variables -@cindex environment variables -@cindex BISON_HAIRY -@cindex BISON_SIMPLE - -Here is a list of environment variables which affect the way Bison -runs. - -@table @samp -@item BISON_SIMPLE -@itemx BISON_HAIRY -Much of the parser generated by Bison is copied verbatim from a file -called @file{bison.simple}. If Bison cannot find that file, or if you -would like to direct Bison to use a different copy, setting the -environment variable @code{BISON_SIMPLE} to the path of the file will -cause Bison to use that copy instead. - -When the @samp{%semantic_parser} declaration is used, Bison copies from -a file called @file{bison.hairy} instead. The location of this file can -also be specified or overridden in a similar fashion, with the -@code{BISON_HAIRY} environment variable. +For instance, on the following grammar +@item -v +@itemx --verbose +Pretend that @code{%verbose} was specified, i.e, write an extra output +file containing verbose descriptions of the grammar and +parser. @xref{Decl Summary}. + +@item -o @var{file} +@itemx --output=@var{file} +Specify the @var{file} for the parser file. + +The other output files' names are constructed from @var{file} as +described under the @samp{-v} and @samp{-d} options. + +@item -g +Output a @acronym{VCG} definition of the @acronym{LALR}(1) grammar +automaton computed by Bison. If the grammar file is @file{foo.y}, the +@acronym{VCG} output file will +be @file{foo.vcg}. + +@item --graph=@var{graph-file} +The behavior of @var{--graph} is the same than @samp{-g}. The only +difference is that it has an optional argument which is the name of +the output graph file. @end table -@node Option Cross Key, VMS Invocation, Environment Variables, Invocation +@node Option Cross Key @section Option Cross Key Here is a list of options, alphabetized by long option, to help you find @@ -5037,13 +6830,13 @@ the corresponding short option. \line{ --debug \leaderfill -t} \line{ --defines \leaderfill -d} \line{ --file-prefix \leaderfill -b} -\line{ --fixed-output-files \leaderfill -y} +\line{ --graph \leaderfill -g} \line{ --help \leaderfill -h} \line{ --name-prefix \leaderfill -p} \line{ --no-lines \leaderfill -l} \line{ --no-parser \leaderfill -n} -\line{ --output-file \leaderfill -o} -\line{ --raw \leaderfill -r} +\line{ --output \leaderfill -o} +\line{ --print-localedir} \line{ --token-table \leaderfill -k} \line{ --verbose \leaderfill -v} \line{ --version \leaderfill -V} @@ -5054,264 +6847,1366 @@ the corresponding short option. @ifinfo @example --debug -t ---defines -d +--defines=@var{defines-file} -d --file-prefix=@var{prefix} -b @var{file-prefix} ---fixed-output-files --yacc -y +--graph=@var{graph-file} -d --help -h --name-prefix=@var{prefix} -p @var{name-prefix} --no-lines -l --no-parser -n ---output-file=@var{outfile} -o @var{outfile} ---raw -r +--output=@var{outfile} -o @var{outfile} +--print-localedir --token-table -k --verbose -v --version -V +--yacc -y @end example @end ifinfo -@node VMS Invocation, , Option Cross Key, Invocation -@section Invoking Bison under VMS -@cindex invoking Bison under VMS -@cindex VMS +@node Yacc Library +@section Yacc Library + +The Yacc library contains default implementations of the +@code{yyerror} and @code{main} functions. These default +implementations are normally not useful, but @acronym{POSIX} requires +them. To use the Yacc library, link your program with the +@option{-ly} option. Note that Bison's implementation of the Yacc +library is distributed under the terms of the @acronym{GNU} General +Public License (@pxref{Copying}). + +If you use the Yacc library's @code{yyerror} function, you should +declare @code{yyerror} as follows: + +@example +int yyerror (char const *); +@end example + +Bison ignores the @code{int} value returned by this @code{yyerror}. +If you use the Yacc library's @code{main} function, your +@code{yyparse} function should have the following type signature: + +@example +int yyparse (void); +@end example + +@c ================================================= C++ Bison + +@node C++ Language Interface +@chapter C++ Language Interface + +@menu +* C++ Parsers:: The interface to generate C++ parser classes +* A Complete C++ Example:: Demonstrating their use +@end menu + +@node C++ Parsers +@section C++ Parsers + +@menu +* C++ Bison Interface:: Asking for C++ parser generation +* C++ Semantic Values:: %union vs. C++ +* C++ Location Values:: The position and location classes +* C++ Parser Interface:: Instantiating and running the parser +* C++ Scanner Interface:: Exchanges between yylex and parse +@end menu + +@node C++ Bison Interface +@subsection C++ Bison Interface +@c - %skeleton "lalr1.cc" +@c - Always pure +@c - initial action + +The C++ parser @acronym{LALR}(1) skeleton is named @file{lalr1.cc}. To select +it, you may either pass the option @option{--skeleton=lalr1.cc} to +Bison, or include the directive @samp{%skeleton "lalr1.cc"} in the +grammar preamble. When run, @command{bison} will create several +files: +@table @file +@item position.hh +@itemx location.hh +The definition of the classes @code{position} and @code{location}, +used for location tracking. @xref{C++ Location Values}. + +@item stack.hh +An auxiliary class @code{stack} used by the parser. + +@item @var{file}.hh +@itemx @var{file}.cc +The declaration and implementation of the C++ parser class. +@var{file} is the name of the output file. It follows the same +rules as with regular C parsers. + +Note that @file{@var{file}.hh} is @emph{mandatory}, the C++ cannot +work without the parser class declaration. Therefore, you must either +pass @option{-d}/@option{--defines} to @command{bison}, or use the +@samp{%defines} directive. +@end table + +All these files are documented using Doxygen; run @command{doxygen} +for a complete and accurate documentation. + +@node C++ Semantic Values +@subsection C++ Semantic Values +@c - No objects in unions +@c - YSTYPE +@c - Printer and destructor + +The @code{%union} directive works as for C, see @ref{Union Decl, ,The +Collection of Value Types}. In particular it produces a genuine +@code{union}@footnote{In the future techniques to allow complex types +within pseudo-unions (similar to Boost variants) might be implemented to +alleviate these issues.}, which have a few specific features in C++. +@itemize @minus +@item +The type @code{YYSTYPE} is defined but its use is discouraged: rather +you should refer to the parser's encapsulated type +@code{yy::parser::semantic_type}. +@item +Non POD (Plain Old Data) types cannot be used. C++ forbids any +instance of classes with constructors in unions: only @emph{pointers} +to such objects are allowed. +@end itemize + +Because objects have to be stored via pointers, memory is not +reclaimed automatically: using the @code{%destructor} directive is the +only means to avoid leaks. @xref{Destructor Decl, , Freeing Discarded +Symbols}. + + +@node C++ Location Values +@subsection C++ Location Values +@c - %locations +@c - class Position +@c - class Location +@c - %define "filename_type" "const symbol::Symbol" + +When the directive @code{%locations} is used, the C++ parser supports +location tracking, see @ref{Locations, , Locations Overview}. Two +auxiliary classes define a @code{position}, a single point in a file, +and a @code{location}, a range composed of a pair of +@code{position}s (possibly spanning several files). + +@deftypemethod {position} {std::string*} file +The name of the file. It will always be handled as a pointer, the +parser will never duplicate nor deallocate it. As an experimental +feature you may change it to @samp{@var{type}*} using @samp{%define +"filename_type" "@var{type}"}. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {position} {unsigned int} line +The line, starting at 1. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {position} {unsigned int} lines (int @var{height} = 1) +Advance by @var{height} lines, resetting the column number. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {position} {unsigned int} column +The column, starting at 0. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {position} {unsigned int} columns (int @var{width} = 1) +Advance by @var{width} columns, without changing the line number. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {position} {position&} operator+= (position& @var{pos}, int @var{width}) +@deftypemethodx {position} {position} operator+ (const position& @var{pos}, int @var{width}) +@deftypemethodx {position} {position&} operator-= (const position& @var{pos}, int @var{width}) +@deftypemethodx {position} {position} operator- (position& @var{pos}, int @var{width}) +Various forms of syntactic sugar for @code{columns}. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {position} {position} operator<< (std::ostream @var{o}, const position& @var{p}) +Report @var{p} on @var{o} like this: +@samp{@var{file}:@var{line}.@var{column}}, or +@samp{@var{line}.@var{column}} if @var{file} is null. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {location} {position} begin +@deftypemethodx {location} {position} end +The first, inclusive, position of the range, and the first beyond. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {location} {unsigned int} columns (int @var{width} = 1) +@deftypemethodx {location} {unsigned int} lines (int @var{height} = 1) +Advance the @code{end} position. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {location} {location} operator+ (const location& @var{begin}, const location& @var{end}) +@deftypemethodx {location} {location} operator+ (const location& @var{begin}, int @var{width}) +@deftypemethodx {location} {location} operator+= (const location& @var{loc}, int @var{width}) +Various forms of syntactic sugar. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {location} {void} step () +Move @code{begin} onto @code{end}. +@end deftypemethod + + +@node C++ Parser Interface +@subsection C++ Parser Interface +@c - define parser_class_name +@c - Ctor +@c - parse, error, set_debug_level, debug_level, set_debug_stream, +@c debug_stream. +@c - Reporting errors + +The output files @file{@var{output}.hh} and @file{@var{output}.cc} +declare and define the parser class in the namespace @code{yy}. The +class name defaults to @code{parser}, but may be changed using +@samp{%define "parser_class_name" "@var{name}"}. The interface of +this class is detailled below. It can be extended using the +@code{%parse-param} feature: its semantics is slightly changed since +it describes an additional member of the parser class, and an +additional argument for its constructor. + +@defcv {Type} {parser} {semantic_value_type} +@defcvx {Type} {parser} {location_value_type} +The types for semantics value and locations. +@end defcv + +@deftypemethod {parser} {} parser (@var{type1} @var{arg1}, ...) +Build a new parser object. There are no arguments by default, unless +@samp{%parse-param @{@var{type1} @var{arg1}@}} was used. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {parser} {int} parse () +Run the syntactic analysis, and return 0 on success, 1 otherwise. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {parser} {std::ostream&} debug_stream () +@deftypemethodx {parser} {void} set_debug_stream (std::ostream& @var{o}) +Get or set the stream used for tracing the parsing. It defaults to +@code{std::cerr}. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {parser} {debug_level_type} debug_level () +@deftypemethodx {parser} {void} set_debug_level (debug_level @var{l}) +Get or set the tracing level. Currently its value is either 0, no trace, +or non-zero, full tracing. +@end deftypemethod + +@deftypemethod {parser} {void} error (const location_type& @var{l}, const std::string& @var{m}) +The definition for this member function must be supplied by the user: +the parser uses it to report a parser error occurring at @var{l}, +described by @var{m}. +@end deftypemethod + + +@node C++ Scanner Interface +@subsection C++ Scanner Interface +@c - prefix for yylex. +@c - Pure interface to yylex +@c - %lex-param + +The parser invokes the scanner by calling @code{yylex}. Contrary to C +parsers, C++ parsers are always pure: there is no point in using the +@code{%pure-parser} directive. Therefore the interface is as follows. + +@deftypemethod {parser} {int} yylex (semantic_value_type& @var{yylval}, location_type& @var{yylloc}, @var{type1} @var{arg1}, ...) +Return the next token. Its type is the return value, its semantic +value and location being @var{yylval} and @var{yylloc}. Invocations of +@samp{%lex-param @{@var{type1} @var{arg1}@}} yield additional arguments. +@end deftypemethod + + +@node A Complete C++ Example +@section A Complete C++ Example + +This section demonstrates the use of a C++ parser with a simple but +complete example. This example should be available on your system, +ready to compile, in the directory @dfn{../bison/examples/calc++}. It +focuses on the use of Bison, therefore the design of the various C++ +classes is very naive: no accessors, no encapsulation of members etc. +We will use a Lex scanner, and more precisely, a Flex scanner, to +demonstrate the various interaction. A hand written scanner is +actually easier to interface with. + +@menu +* Calc++ --- C++ Calculator:: The specifications +* Calc++ Parsing Driver:: An active parsing context +* Calc++ Parser:: A parser class +* Calc++ Scanner:: A pure C++ Flex scanner +* Calc++ Top Level:: Conducting the band +@end menu + +@node Calc++ --- C++ Calculator +@subsection Calc++ --- C++ Calculator -The command line syntax for Bison on VMS is a variant of the usual -Bison command syntax---adapted to fit VMS conventions. +Of course the grammar is dedicated to arithmetics, a single +expression, possibily preceded by variable assignments. An +environment containing possibly predefined variables such as +@code{one} and @code{two}, is exchanged with the parser. An example +of valid input follows. -To find the VMS equivalent for any Bison option, start with the long -option, and substitute a @samp{/} for the leading @samp{--}, and -substitute a @samp{_} for each @samp{-} in the name of the long option. -For example, the following invocation under VMS: +@example +three := 3 +seven := one + two * three +seven * seven +@end example +@node Calc++ Parsing Driver +@subsection Calc++ Parsing Driver +@c - An env +@c - A place to store error messages +@c - A place for the result + +To support a pure interface with the parser (and the scanner) the +technique of the ``parsing context'' is convenient: a structure +containing all the data to exchange. Since, in addition to simply +launch the parsing, there are several auxiliary tasks to execute (open +the file for parsing, instantiate the parser etc.), we recommend +transforming the simple parsing context structure into a fully blown +@dfn{parsing driver} class. + +The declaration of this driver class, @file{calc++-driver.hh}, is as +follows. The first part includes the CPP guard and imports the +required standard library components, and the declaration of the parser +class. + +@comment file: calc++-driver.hh @example -bison /debug/name_prefix=bar foo.y +#ifndef CALCXX_DRIVER_HH +# define CALCXX_DRIVER_HH +# include +# include +# include "calc++-parser.hh" @end example + @noindent -is equivalent to the following command under POSIX. +Then comes the declaration of the scanning function. Flex expects +the signature of @code{yylex} to be defined in the macro +@code{YY_DECL}, and the C++ parser expects it to be declared. We can +factor both as follows. +@comment file: calc++-driver.hh @example -bison --debug --name-prefix=bar foo.y +// Announce to Flex the prototype we want for lexing function, ... +# define YY_DECL \ + int yylex (yy::calcxx_parser::semantic_type* yylval, \ + yy::calcxx_parser::location_type* yylloc, \ + calcxx_driver& driver) +// ... and declare it for the parser's sake. +YY_DECL; @end example -The VMS file system does not permit filenames such as -@file{foo.tab.c}. In the above example, the output file -would instead be named @file{foo_tab.c}. +@noindent +The @code{calcxx_driver} class is then declared with its most obvious +members. -@node Table of Symbols, Glossary, Invocation, Top -@appendix Bison Symbols -@cindex Bison symbols, table of -@cindex symbols in Bison, table of +@comment file: calc++-driver.hh +@example +// Conducting the whole scanning and parsing of Calc++. +class calcxx_driver +@{ +public: + calcxx_driver (); + virtual ~calcxx_driver (); -@table @code -@item error -A token name reserved for error recovery. This token may be used in -grammar rules so as to allow the Bison parser to recognize an error in -the grammar without halting the process. In effect, a sentence -containing an error may be recognized as valid. On a parse error, the -token @code{error} becomes the current look-ahead token. Actions -corresponding to @code{error} are then executed, and the look-ahead -token is reset to the token that originally caused the violation. -@xref{Error Recovery}. + std::map variables; -@item YYABORT -Macro to pretend that an unrecoverable syntax error has occurred, by -making @code{yyparse} return 1 immediately. The error reporting -function @code{yyerror} is not called. @xref{Parser Function, ,The -Parser Function @code{yyparse}}. + int result; +@end example -@item YYACCEPT -Macro to pretend that a complete utterance of the language has been -read, by making @code{yyparse} return 0 immediately. -@xref{Parser Function, ,The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}. +@noindent +To encapsulate the coordination with the Flex scanner, it is useful to +have two members function to open and close the scanning phase. +members. -@item YYBACKUP -Macro to discard a value from the parser stack and fake a look-ahead -token. @xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}. +@comment file: calc++-driver.hh +@example + // Handling the scanner. + void scan_begin (); + void scan_end (); + bool trace_scanning; +@end example -@item YYERROR -Macro to pretend that a syntax error has just been detected: call -@code{yyerror} and then perform normal error recovery if possible -(@pxref{Error Recovery}), or (if recovery is impossible) make -@code{yyparse} return 1. @xref{Error Recovery}. +@noindent +Similarly for the parser itself. -@item YYERROR_VERBOSE -Macro that you define with @code{#define} in the Bison declarations -section to request verbose, specific error message strings when -@code{yyerror} is called. +@comment file: calc++-driver.hh +@example + // Handling the parser. + void parse (const std::string& f); + std::string file; + bool trace_parsing; +@end example -@item YYINITDEPTH -Macro for specifying the initial size of the parser stack. -@xref{Stack Overflow}. +@noindent +To demonstrate pure handling of parse errors, instead of simply +dumping them on the standard error output, we will pass them to the +compiler driver using the following two member functions. Finally, we +close the class declaration and CPP guard. -@item YYLEX_PARAM -Macro for specifying an extra argument (or list of extra arguments) for -@code{yyparse} to pass to @code{yylex}. @xref{Pure Calling,, Calling -Conventions for Pure Parsers}. +@comment file: calc++-driver.hh +@example + // Error handling. + void error (const yy::location& l, const std::string& m); + void error (const std::string& m); +@}; +#endif // ! CALCXX_DRIVER_HH +@end example -@item YYLTYPE -Macro for the data type of @code{yylloc}; a structure with four -members. @xref{Token Positions, ,Textual Positions of Tokens}. +The implementation of the driver is straightforward. The @code{parse} +member function deserves some attention. The @code{error} functions +are simple stubs, they should actually register the located error +messages and set error state. -@item yyltype -Default value for YYLTYPE. +@comment file: calc++-driver.cc +@example +#include "calc++-driver.hh" +#include "calc++-parser.hh" -@item YYMAXDEPTH -Macro for specifying the maximum size of the parser stack. -@xref{Stack Overflow}. +calcxx_driver::calcxx_driver () + : trace_scanning (false), trace_parsing (false) +@{ + variables["one"] = 1; + variables["two"] = 2; +@} -@item YYPARSE_PARAM -Macro for specifying the name of a parameter that @code{yyparse} should -accept. @xref{Pure Calling,, Calling Conventions for Pure Parsers}. +calcxx_driver::~calcxx_driver () +@{ +@} -@item YYRECOVERING -Macro whose value indicates whether the parser is recovering from a -syntax error. @xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}. +void +calcxx_driver::parse (const std::string &f) +@{ + file = f; + scan_begin (); + yy::calcxx_parser parser (*this); + parser.set_debug_level (trace_parsing); + parser.parse (); + scan_end (); +@} -@item YYSTYPE -Macro for the data type of semantic values; @code{int} by default. -@xref{Value Type, ,Data Types of Semantic Values}. +void +calcxx_driver::error (const yy::location& l, const std::string& m) +@{ + std::cerr << l << ": " << m << std::endl; +@} -@item yychar -External integer variable that contains the integer value of the current -look-ahead token. (In a pure parser, it is a local variable within -@code{yyparse}.) Error-recovery rule actions may examine this variable. -@xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}. +void +calcxx_driver::error (const std::string& m) +@{ + std::cerr << m << std::endl; +@} +@end example -@item yyclearin -Macro used in error-recovery rule actions. It clears the previous -look-ahead token. @xref{Error Recovery}. +@node Calc++ Parser +@subsection Calc++ Parser -@item yydebug -External integer variable set to zero by default. If @code{yydebug} -is given a nonzero value, the parser will output information on input -symbols and parser action. @xref{Debugging, ,Debugging Your Parser}. +The parser definition file @file{calc++-parser.yy} starts by asking for +the C++ LALR(1) skeleton, the creation of the parser header file, and +specifies the name of the parser class. Because the C++ skeleton +changed several times, it is safer to require the version you designed +the grammar for. -@item yyerrok -Macro to cause parser to recover immediately to its normal mode -after a parse error. @xref{Error Recovery}. +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +%skeleton "lalr1.cc" /* -*- C++ -*- */ +%require "2.1a" +%defines +%define "parser_class_name" "calcxx_parser" +@end example -@item yyerror -User-supplied function to be called by @code{yyparse} on error. The -function receives one argument, a pointer to a character string -containing an error message. @xref{Error Reporting, ,The Error -Reporting Function @code{yyerror}}. +@noindent +Then come the declarations/inclusions needed to define the +@code{%union}. Because the parser uses the parsing driver and +reciprocally, both cannot include the header of the other. Because the +driver's header needs detailed knowledge about the parser class (in +particular its inner types), it is the parser's header which will simply +use a forward declaration of the driver. + +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +%@{ +# include +class calcxx_driver; +%@} +@end example -@item yylex -User-supplied lexical analyzer function, called with no arguments -to get the next token. @xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function @code{yylex}}. +@noindent +The driver is passed by reference to the parser and to the scanner. +This provides a simple but effective pure interface, not relying on +global variables. -@item yylval -External variable in which @code{yylex} should place the semantic -value associated with a token. (In a pure parser, it is a local -variable within @code{yyparse}, and its address is passed to -@code{yylex}.) @xref{Token Values, ,Semantic Values of Tokens}. +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +// The parsing context. +%parse-param @{ calcxx_driver& driver @} +%lex-param @{ calcxx_driver& driver @} +@end example -@item yylloc -External variable in which @code{yylex} should place the line and column -numbers associated with a token. (In a pure parser, it is a local -variable within @code{yyparse}, and its address is passed to -@code{yylex}.) You can ignore this variable if you don't use the -@samp{@@} feature in the grammar actions. @xref{Token Positions, -,Textual Positions of Tokens}. +@noindent +Then we request the location tracking feature, and initialize the +first location's file name. Afterwards new locations are computed +relatively to the previous locations: the file name will be +automatically propagated. -@item yynerrs -Global variable which Bison increments each time there is a parse error. -(In a pure parser, it is a local variable within @code{yyparse}.) -@xref{Error Reporting, ,The Error Reporting Function @code{yyerror}}. +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +%locations +%initial-action +@{ + // Initialize the initial location. + @@$.begin.filename = @@$.end.filename = &driver.file; +@}; +@end example -@item yyparse -The parser function produced by Bison; call this function to start -parsing. @xref{Parser Function, ,The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}. +@noindent +Use the two following directives to enable parser tracing and verbose +error messages. + +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +%debug +%error-verbose +@end example + +@noindent +Semantic values cannot use ``real'' objects, but only pointers to +them. + +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +// Symbols. +%union +@{ + int ival; + std::string *sval; +@}; +@end example + +@noindent +The code between @samp{%@{} and @samp{%@}} after the introduction of the +@samp{%union} is output in the @file{*.cc} file; it needs detailed +knowledge about the driver. + +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +%@{ +# include "calc++-driver.hh" +%@} +@end example + + +@noindent +The token numbered as 0 corresponds to end of file; the following line +allows for nicer error messages referring to ``end of file'' instead +of ``$end''. Similarly user friendly named are provided for each +symbol. Note that the tokens names are prefixed by @code{TOKEN_} to +avoid name clashes. + +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +%token END 0 "end of file" +%token ASSIGN ":=" +%token IDENTIFIER "identifier" +%token NUMBER "number" +%type exp "expression" +@end example + +@noindent +To enable memory deallocation during error recovery, use +@code{%destructor}. + +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +%printer @{ debug_stream () << *$$; @} "identifier" +%destructor @{ delete $$; @} "identifier" + +%printer @{ debug_stream () << $$; @} "number" "expression" +@end example + +@noindent +The grammar itself is straightforward. + +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +%% +%start unit; +unit: assignments exp @{ driver.result = $2; @}; + +assignments: assignments assignment @{@} + | /* Nothing. */ @{@}; + +assignment: "identifier" ":=" exp @{ driver.variables[*$1] = $3; @}; + +%left '+' '-'; +%left '*' '/'; +exp: exp '+' exp @{ $$ = $1 + $3; @} + | exp '-' exp @{ $$ = $1 - $3; @} + | exp '*' exp @{ $$ = $1 * $3; @} + | exp '/' exp @{ $$ = $1 / $3; @} + | "identifier" @{ $$ = driver.variables[*$1]; @} + | "number" @{ $$ = $1; @}; +%% +@end example + +@noindent +Finally the @code{error} member function registers the errors to the +driver. + +@comment file: calc++-parser.yy +@example +void +yy::calcxx_parser::error (const yy::calcxx_parser::location_type& l, + const std::string& m) +@{ + driver.error (l, m); +@} +@end example + +@node Calc++ Scanner +@subsection Calc++ Scanner + +The Flex scanner first includes the driver declaration, then the +parser's to get the set of defined tokens. + +@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll +@example +%@{ /* -*- C++ -*- */ +# include +# include +# include +# include +# include "calc++-driver.hh" +# include "calc++-parser.hh" +%@} +@end example + +@noindent +Because there is no @code{#include}-like feature we don't need +@code{yywrap}, we don't need @code{unput} either, and we parse an +actual file, this is not an interactive session with the user. +Finally we enable the scanner tracing features. + +@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll +@example +%option noyywrap nounput batch debug +@end example + +@noindent +Abbreviations allow for more readable rules. + +@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll +@example +id [a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z_0-9]* +int [0-9]+ +blank [ \t] +@end example + +@noindent +The following paragraph suffices to track locations acurately. Each +time @code{yylex} is invoked, the begin position is moved onto the end +position. Then when a pattern is matched, the end position is +advanced of its width. In case it matched ends of lines, the end +cursor is adjusted, and each time blanks are matched, the begin cursor +is moved onto the end cursor to effectively ignore the blanks +preceding tokens. Comments would be treated equally. + +@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll +@example +%@{ +# define YY_USER_ACTION yylloc->columns (yyleng); +%@} +%% +%@{ + yylloc->step (); +%@} +@{blank@}+ yylloc->step (); +[\n]+ yylloc->lines (yyleng); yylloc->step (); +@end example + +@noindent +The rules are simple, just note the use of the driver to report errors. +It is convenient to use a typedef to shorten +@code{yy::calcxx_parser::token::identifier} into +@code{token::identifier} for isntance. -@item %left +@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll +@example +%@{ + typedef yy::calcxx_parser::token token; +%@} + +[-+*/] return yytext[0]; +":=" return token::ASSIGN; +@{int@} @{ + errno = 0; + long n = strtol (yytext, NULL, 10); + if (! (INT_MIN <= n && n <= INT_MAX && errno != ERANGE)) + driver.error (*yylloc, "integer is out of range"); + yylval->ival = n; + return token::NUMBER; +@} +@{id@} yylval->sval = new std::string (yytext); return token::IDENTIFIER; +. driver.error (*yylloc, "invalid character"); +%% +@end example + +@noindent +Finally, because the scanner related driver's member function depend +on the scanner's data, it is simpler to implement them in this file. + +@comment file: calc++-scanner.ll +@example +void +calcxx_driver::scan_begin () +@{ + yy_flex_debug = trace_scanning; + if (!(yyin = fopen (file.c_str (), "r"))) + error (std::string ("cannot open ") + file); +@} + +void +calcxx_driver::scan_end () +@{ + fclose (yyin); +@} +@end example + +@node Calc++ Top Level +@subsection Calc++ Top Level + +The top level file, @file{calc++.cc}, poses no problem. + +@comment file: calc++.cc +@example +#include +#include "calc++-driver.hh" + +int +main (int argc, char *argv[]) +@{ + calcxx_driver driver; + for (++argv; argv[0]; ++argv) + if (*argv == std::string ("-p")) + driver.trace_parsing = true; + else if (*argv == std::string ("-s")) + driver.trace_scanning = true; + else + @{ + driver.parse (*argv); + std::cout << driver.result << std::endl; + @} +@} +@end example + +@c ================================================= FAQ + +@node FAQ +@chapter Frequently Asked Questions +@cindex frequently asked questions +@cindex questions + +Several questions about Bison come up occasionally. Here some of them +are addressed. + +@menu +* Memory Exhausted:: Breaking the Stack Limits +* How Can I Reset the Parser:: @code{yyparse} Keeps some State +* Strings are Destroyed:: @code{yylval} Loses Track of Strings +* Implementing Gotos/Loops:: Control Flow in the Calculator +@end menu + +@node Memory Exhausted +@section Memory Exhausted + +@display +My parser returns with error with a @samp{memory exhausted} +message. What can I do? +@end display + +This question is already addressed elsewhere, @xref{Recursion, +,Recursive Rules}. + +@node How Can I Reset the Parser +@section How Can I Reset the Parser + +The following phenomenon has several symptoms, resulting in the +following typical questions: + +@display +I invoke @code{yyparse} several times, and on correct input it works +properly; but when a parse error is found, all the other calls fail +too. How can I reset the error flag of @code{yyparse}? +@end display + +@noindent +or + +@display +My parser includes support for an @samp{#include}-like feature, in +which case I run @code{yyparse} from @code{yyparse}. This fails +although I did specify I needed a @code{%pure-parser}. +@end display + +These problems typically come not from Bison itself, but from +Lex-generated scanners. Because these scanners use large buffers for +speed, they might not notice a change of input file. As a +demonstration, consider the following source file, +@file{first-line.l}: + +@verbatim +%{ +#include +#include +%} +%% +.*\n ECHO; return 1; +%% +int +yyparse (char const *file) +{ + yyin = fopen (file, "r"); + if (!yyin) + exit (2); + /* One token only. */ + yylex (); + if (fclose (yyin) != 0) + exit (3); + return 0; +} + +int +main (void) +{ + yyparse ("input"); + yyparse ("input"); + return 0; +} +@end verbatim + +@noindent +If the file @file{input} contains + +@verbatim +input:1: Hello, +input:2: World! +@end verbatim + +@noindent +then instead of getting the first line twice, you get: + +@example +$ @kbd{flex -ofirst-line.c first-line.l} +$ @kbd{gcc -ofirst-line first-line.c -ll} +$ @kbd{./first-line} +input:1: Hello, +input:2: World! +@end example + +Therefore, whenever you change @code{yyin}, you must tell the +Lex-generated scanner to discard its current buffer and switch to the +new one. This depends upon your implementation of Lex; see its +documentation for more. For Flex, it suffices to call +@samp{YY_FLUSH_BUFFER} after each change to @code{yyin}. If your +Flex-generated scanner needs to read from several input streams to +handle features like include files, you might consider using Flex +functions like @samp{yy_switch_to_buffer} that manipulate multiple +input buffers. + +If your Flex-generated scanner uses start conditions (@pxref{Start +conditions, , Start conditions, flex, The Flex Manual}), you might +also want to reset the scanner's state, i.e., go back to the initial +start condition, through a call to @samp{BEGIN (0)}. + +@node Strings are Destroyed +@section Strings are Destroyed + +@display +My parser seems to destroy old strings, or maybe it loses track of +them. Instead of reporting @samp{"foo", "bar"}, it reports +@samp{"bar", "bar"}, or even @samp{"foo\nbar", "bar"}. +@end display + +This error is probably the single most frequent ``bug report'' sent to +Bison lists, but is only concerned with a misunderstanding of the role +of scanner. Consider the following Lex code: + +@verbatim +%{ +#include +char *yylval = NULL; +%} +%% +.* yylval = yytext; return 1; +\n /* IGNORE */ +%% +int +main () +{ + /* Similar to using $1, $2 in a Bison action. */ + char *fst = (yylex (), yylval); + char *snd = (yylex (), yylval); + printf ("\"%s\", \"%s\"\n", fst, snd); + return 0; +} +@end verbatim + +If you compile and run this code, you get: + +@example +$ @kbd{flex -osplit-lines.c split-lines.l} +$ @kbd{gcc -osplit-lines split-lines.c -ll} +$ @kbd{printf 'one\ntwo\n' | ./split-lines} +"one +two", "two" +@end example + +@noindent +this is because @code{yytext} is a buffer provided for @emph{reading} +in the action, but if you want to keep it, you have to duplicate it +(e.g., using @code{strdup}). Note that the output may depend on how +your implementation of Lex handles @code{yytext}. For instance, when +given the Lex compatibility option @option{-l} (which triggers the +option @samp{%array}) Flex generates a different behavior: + +@example +$ @kbd{flex -l -osplit-lines.c split-lines.l} +$ @kbd{gcc -osplit-lines split-lines.c -ll} +$ @kbd{printf 'one\ntwo\n' | ./split-lines} +"two", "two" +@end example + + +@node Implementing Gotos/Loops +@section Implementing Gotos/Loops + +@display +My simple calculator supports variables, assignments, and functions, +but how can I implement gotos, or loops? +@end display + +Although very pedagogical, the examples included in the document blur +the distinction to make between the parser---whose job is to recover +the structure of a text and to transmit it to subsequent modules of +the program---and the processing (such as the execution) of this +structure. This works well with so called straight line programs, +i.e., precisely those that have a straightforward execution model: +execute simple instructions one after the others. + +@cindex abstract syntax tree +@cindex @acronym{AST} +If you want a richer model, you will probably need to use the parser +to construct a tree that does represent the structure it has +recovered; this tree is usually called the @dfn{abstract syntax tree}, +or @dfn{@acronym{AST}} for short. Then, walking through this tree, +traversing it in various ways, will enable treatments such as its +execution or its translation, which will result in an interpreter or a +compiler. + +This topic is way beyond the scope of this manual, and the reader is +invited to consult the dedicated literature. + + + +@c ================================================= Table of Symbols + +@node Table of Symbols +@appendix Bison Symbols +@cindex Bison symbols, table of +@cindex symbols in Bison, table of + +@deffn {Variable} @@$ +In an action, the location of the left-hand side of the rule. +@xref{Locations, , Locations Overview}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Variable} @@@var{n} +In an action, the location of the @var{n}-th symbol of the right-hand +side of the rule. @xref{Locations, , Locations Overview}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Variable} $$ +In an action, the semantic value of the left-hand side of the rule. +@xref{Actions}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Variable} $@var{n} +In an action, the semantic value of the @var{n}-th symbol of the +right-hand side of the rule. @xref{Actions}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Delimiter} %% +Delimiter used to separate the grammar rule section from the +Bison declarations section or the epilogue. +@xref{Grammar Layout, ,The Overall Layout of a Bison Grammar}. +@end deffn + +@c Don't insert spaces, or check the DVI output. +@deffn {Delimiter} %@{@var{code}%@} +All code listed between @samp{%@{} and @samp{%@}} is copied directly to +the output file uninterpreted. Such code forms the prologue of the input +file. @xref{Grammar Outline, ,Outline of a Bison +Grammar}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Construct} /*@dots{}*/ +Comment delimiters, as in C. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Delimiter} : +Separates a rule's result from its components. @xref{Rules, ,Syntax of +Grammar Rules}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Delimiter} ; +Terminates a rule. @xref{Rules, ,Syntax of Grammar Rules}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Delimiter} | +Separates alternate rules for the same result nonterminal. +@xref{Rules, ,Syntax of Grammar Rules}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Symbol} $accept +The predefined nonterminal whose only rule is @samp{$accept: @var{start} +$end}, where @var{start} is the start symbol. @xref{Start Decl, , The +Start-Symbol}. It cannot be used in the grammar. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %debug +Equip the parser for debugging. @xref{Decl Summary}. +@end deffn + +@ifset defaultprec +@deffn {Directive} %default-prec +Assign a precedence to rules that lack an explicit @samp{%prec} +modifier. @xref{Contextual Precedence, ,Context-Dependent +Precedence}. +@end deffn +@end ifset + +@deffn {Directive} %defines +Bison declaration to create a header file meant for the scanner. +@xref{Decl Summary}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %destructor +Specify how the parser should reclaim the memory associated to +discarded symbols. @xref{Destructor Decl, , Freeing Discarded Symbols}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %dprec +Bison declaration to assign a precedence to a rule that is used at parse +time to resolve reduce/reduce conflicts. @xref{GLR Parsers, ,Writing +@acronym{GLR} Parsers}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Symbol} $end +The predefined token marking the end of the token stream. It cannot be +used in the grammar. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Symbol} error +A token name reserved for error recovery. This token may be used in +grammar rules so as to allow the Bison parser to recognize an error in +the grammar without halting the process. In effect, a sentence +containing an error may be recognized as valid. On a syntax error, the +token @code{error} becomes the current look-ahead token. Actions +corresponding to @code{error} are then executed, and the look-ahead +token is reset to the token that originally caused the violation. +@xref{Error Recovery}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %error-verbose +Bison declaration to request verbose, specific error message strings +when @code{yyerror} is called. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %file-prefix="@var{prefix}" +Bison declaration to set the prefix of the output files. @xref{Decl +Summary}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %glr-parser +Bison declaration to produce a @acronym{GLR} parser. @xref{GLR +Parsers, ,Writing @acronym{GLR} Parsers}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %initial-action +Run user code before parsing. @xref{Initial Action Decl, , Performing Actions before Parsing}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %left Bison declaration to assign left associativity to token(s). @xref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %lex-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} +Bison declaration to specifying an additional parameter that +@code{yylex} should accept. @xref{Pure Calling,, Calling Conventions +for Pure Parsers}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %merge +Bison declaration to assign a merging function to a rule. If there is a +reduce/reduce conflict with a rule having the same merging function, the +function is applied to the two semantic values to get a single result. +@xref{GLR Parsers, ,Writing @acronym{GLR} Parsers}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %name-prefix="@var{prefix}" +Bison declaration to rename the external symbols. @xref{Decl Summary}. +@end deffn + +@ifset defaultprec +@deffn {Directive} %no-default-prec +Do not assign a precedence to rules that lack an explicit @samp{%prec} +modifier. @xref{Contextual Precedence, ,Context-Dependent +Precedence}. +@end deffn +@end ifset -@item %no_lines +@deffn {Directive} %no-lines Bison declaration to avoid generating @code{#line} directives in the parser file. @xref{Decl Summary}. +@end deffn -@item %nonassoc -Bison declaration to assign nonassociativity to token(s). +@deffn {Directive} %nonassoc +Bison declaration to assign non-associativity to token(s). @xref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}. +@end deffn -@item %prec +@deffn {Directive} %output="@var{file}" +Bison declaration to set the name of the parser file. @xref{Decl +Summary}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %parse-param @{@var{argument-declaration}@} +Bison declaration to specifying an additional parameter that +@code{yyparse} should accept. @xref{Parser Function,, The Parser +Function @code{yyparse}}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %prec Bison declaration to assign a precedence to a specific rule. @xref{Contextual Precedence, ,Context-Dependent Precedence}. +@end deffn -@item %pure_parser +@deffn {Directive} %pure-parser Bison declaration to request a pure (reentrant) parser. @xref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}. +@end deffn -@item %raw -Bison declaration to use Bison internal token code numbers in token -tables instead of the usual Yacc-compatible token code numbers. -@xref{Decl Summary}. +@deffn {Directive} %require "@var{version}" +Specify that version @var{version} or higher of Bison required for the +grammar. +@xref{Require Decl, , Require a Version of Bison}. +@end deffn -@item %right +@deffn {Directive} %right Bison declaration to assign right associativity to token(s). @xref{Precedence Decl, ,Operator Precedence}. +@end deffn -@item %start -Bison declaration to specify the start symbol. @xref{Start Decl, ,The Start-Symbol}. +@deffn {Directive} %start +Bison declaration to specify the start symbol. @xref{Start Decl, ,The +Start-Symbol}. +@end deffn -@item %token +@deffn {Directive} %token Bison declaration to declare token(s) without specifying precedence. @xref{Token Decl, ,Token Type Names}. +@end deffn -@item %token_table +@deffn {Directive} %token-table Bison declaration to include a token name table in the parser file. @xref{Decl Summary}. +@end deffn -@item %type -Bison declaration to declare nonterminals. @xref{Type Decl, ,Nonterminal Symbols}. +@deffn {Directive} %type +Bison declaration to declare nonterminals. @xref{Type Decl, +,Nonterminal Symbols}. +@end deffn -@item %union +@deffn {Symbol} $undefined +The predefined token onto which all undefined values returned by +@code{yylex} are mapped. It cannot be used in the grammar, rather, use +@code{error}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Directive} %union Bison declaration to specify several possible data types for semantic values. @xref{Union Decl, ,The Collection of Value Types}. -@end table +@end deffn -These are the punctuation and delimiters used in Bison input: +@deffn {Macro} YYABORT +Macro to pretend that an unrecoverable syntax error has occurred, by +making @code{yyparse} return 1 immediately. The error reporting +function @code{yyerror} is not called. @xref{Parser Function, ,The +Parser Function @code{yyparse}}. +@end deffn -@table @samp -@item %% -Delimiter used to separate the grammar rule section from the -Bison declarations section or the additional C code section. -@xref{Grammar Layout, ,The Overall Layout of a Bison Grammar}. +@deffn {Macro} YYACCEPT +Macro to pretend that a complete utterance of the language has been +read, by making @code{yyparse} return 0 immediately. +@xref{Parser Function, ,The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}. +@end deffn -@item %@{ %@} -All code listed between @samp{%@{} and @samp{%@}} is copied directly -to the output file uninterpreted. Such code forms the ``C -declarations'' section of the input file. @xref{Grammar Outline, ,Outline of a Bison Grammar}. +@deffn {Macro} YYBACKUP +Macro to discard a value from the parser stack and fake a look-ahead +token. @xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}. +@end deffn -@item /*@dots{}*/ -Comment delimiters, as in C. +@deffn {Variable} yychar +External integer variable that contains the integer value of the current +look-ahead token. (In a pure parser, it is a local variable within +@code{yyparse}.) Error-recovery rule actions may examine this variable. +@xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}. +@end deffn -@item : -Separates a rule's result from its components. @xref{Rules, ,Syntax of Grammar Rules}. +@deffn {Variable} yyclearin +Macro used in error-recovery rule actions. It clears the previous +look-ahead token. @xref{Error Recovery}. +@end deffn -@item ; -Terminates a rule. @xref{Rules, ,Syntax of Grammar Rules}. +@deffn {Macro} YYDEBUG +Macro to define to equip the parser with tracing code. @xref{Tracing, +,Tracing Your Parser}. +@end deffn -@item | -Separates alternate rules for the same result nonterminal. -@xref{Rules, ,Syntax of Grammar Rules}. -@end table +@deffn {Variable} yydebug +External integer variable set to zero by default. If @code{yydebug} +is given a nonzero value, the parser will output information on input +symbols and parser action. @xref{Tracing, ,Tracing Your Parser}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Macro} yyerrok +Macro to cause parser to recover immediately to its normal mode +after a syntax error. @xref{Error Recovery}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Macro} YYERROR +Macro to pretend that a syntax error has just been detected: call +@code{yyerror} and then perform normal error recovery if possible +(@pxref{Error Recovery}), or (if recovery is impossible) make +@code{yyparse} return 1. @xref{Error Recovery}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Function} yyerror +User-supplied function to be called by @code{yyparse} on error. +@xref{Error Reporting, ,The Error +Reporting Function @code{yyerror}}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Macro} YYERROR_VERBOSE +An obsolete macro that you define with @code{#define} in the prologue +to request verbose, specific error message strings +when @code{yyerror} is called. It doesn't matter what definition you +use for @code{YYERROR_VERBOSE}, just whether you define it. Using +@code{%error-verbose} is preferred. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Macro} YYINITDEPTH +Macro for specifying the initial size of the parser stack. +@xref{Memory Management}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Function} yylex +User-supplied lexical analyzer function, called with no arguments to get +the next token. @xref{Lexical, ,The Lexical Analyzer Function +@code{yylex}}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Macro} YYLEX_PARAM +An obsolete macro for specifying an extra argument (or list of extra +arguments) for @code{yyparse} to pass to @code{yylex}. he use of this +macro is deprecated, and is supported only for Yacc like parsers. +@xref{Pure Calling,, Calling Conventions for Pure Parsers}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Variable} yylloc +External variable in which @code{yylex} should place the line and column +numbers associated with a token. (In a pure parser, it is a local +variable within @code{yyparse}, and its address is passed to +@code{yylex}.) You can ignore this variable if you don't use the +@samp{@@} feature in the grammar actions. @xref{Token Locations, +,Textual Locations of Tokens}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Type} YYLTYPE +Data type of @code{yylloc}; by default, a structure with four +members. @xref{Location Type, , Data Types of Locations}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Variable} yylval +External variable in which @code{yylex} should place the semantic +value associated with a token. (In a pure parser, it is a local +variable within @code{yyparse}, and its address is passed to +@code{yylex}.) @xref{Token Values, ,Semantic Values of Tokens}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Macro} YYMAXDEPTH +Macro for specifying the maximum size of the parser stack. @xref{Memory +Management}. +@end deffn -@node Glossary, Index, Table of Symbols, Top +@deffn {Variable} yynerrs +Global variable which Bison increments each time it reports a syntax error. +(In a pure parser, it is a local variable within @code{yyparse}.) +@xref{Error Reporting, ,The Error Reporting Function @code{yyerror}}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Function} yyparse +The parser function produced by Bison; call this function to start +parsing. @xref{Parser Function, ,The Parser Function @code{yyparse}}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Macro} YYPARSE_PARAM +An obsolete macro for specifying the name of a parameter that +@code{yyparse} should accept. The use of this macro is deprecated, and +is supported only for Yacc like parsers. @xref{Pure Calling,, Calling +Conventions for Pure Parsers}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Macro} YYRECOVERING +Macro whose value indicates whether the parser is recovering from a +syntax error. @xref{Action Features, ,Special Features for Use in Actions}. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Macro} YYSTACK_USE_ALLOCA +Macro used to control the use of @code{alloca} when the C +@acronym{LALR}(1) parser needs to extend its stacks. If defined to 0, +the parser will use @code{malloc} to extend its stacks. If defined to +1, the parser will use @code{alloca}. Values other than 0 and 1 are +reserved for future Bison extensions. If not defined, +@code{YYSTACK_USE_ALLOCA} defaults to 0. + +In the all-too-common case where your code may run on a host with a +limited stack and with unreliable stack-overflow checking, you should +set @code{YYMAXDEPTH} to a value that cannot possibly result in +unchecked stack overflow on any of your target hosts when +@code{alloca} is called. You can inspect the code that Bison +generates in order to determine the proper numeric values. This will +require some expertise in low-level implementation details. +@end deffn + +@deffn {Type} YYSTYPE +Data type of semantic values; @code{int} by default. +@xref{Value Type, ,Data Types of Semantic Values}. +@end deffn + +@node Glossary @appendix Glossary @cindex glossary @table @asis -@item Backus-Naur Form (BNF) -Formal method of specifying context-free grammars. BNF was first used -in the @cite{ALGOL-60} report, 1963. @xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}. +@item Backus-Naur Form (@acronym{BNF}; also called ``Backus Normal Form'') +Formal method of specifying context-free grammars originally proposed +by John Backus, and slightly improved by Peter Naur in his 1960-01-02 +committee document contributing to what became the Algol 60 report. +@xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}. @item Context-free grammars Grammars specified as rules that can be applied regardless of context. Thus, if there is a rule which says that an integer can be used as an expression, integers are allowed @emph{anywhere} an expression is -permitted. @xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}. +permitted. @xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free +Grammars}. @item Dynamic allocation Allocation of memory that occurs during execution, rather than at @@ -5327,11 +8222,20 @@ each instant in time. As input to the machine is processed, the machine moves from state to state as specified by the logic of the machine. In the case of the parser, the input is the language being parsed, and the states correspond to various stages in the grammar -rules. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm }. +rules. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm}. + +@item Generalized @acronym{LR} (@acronym{GLR}) +A parsing algorithm that can handle all context-free grammars, including those +that are not @acronym{LALR}(1). It resolves situations that Bison's +usual @acronym{LALR}(1) +algorithm cannot by effectively splitting off multiple parsers, trying all +possible parsers, and discarding those that fail in the light of additional +right context. @xref{Generalized LR Parsing, ,Generalized +@acronym{LR} Parsing}. @item Grouping A language construct that is (in general) grammatically divisible; -for example, `expression' or `declaration' in C. +for example, `expression' or `declaration' in C@. @xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}. @item Infix operator @@ -5352,12 +8256,13 @@ Operators having left associativity are analyzed from left to right: @samp{c}. @xref{Precedence, ,Operator Precedence}. @item Left recursion -A rule whose result symbol is also its first component symbol; -for example, @samp{expseq1 : expseq1 ',' exp;}. @xref{Recursion, ,Recursive Rules}. +A rule whose result symbol is also its first component symbol; for +example, @samp{expseq1 : expseq1 ',' exp;}. @xref{Recursion, ,Recursive +Rules}. @item Left-to-right parsing Parsing a sentence of a language by analyzing it token by token from -left to right. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm }. +left to right. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm}. @item Lexical analyzer (scanner) A function that reads an input stream and returns tokens one by one. @@ -5368,18 +8273,18 @@ A flag, set by actions in the grammar rules, which alters the way tokens are parsed. @xref{Lexical Tie-ins}. @item Literal string token -A token which consists of two or more fixed characters. -@xref{Symbols}. +A token which consists of two or more fixed characters. @xref{Symbols}. @item Look-ahead token -A token already read but not yet shifted. @xref{Look-Ahead, ,Look-Ahead Tokens}. +A token already read but not yet shifted. @xref{Look-Ahead, ,Look-Ahead +Tokens}. -@item LALR(1) +@item @acronym{LALR}(1) The class of context-free grammars that Bison (like most other parser -generators) can handle; a subset of LR(1). @xref{Mystery Conflicts, , -Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}. +generators) can handle; a subset of @acronym{LR}(1). @xref{Mystery +Conflicts, ,Mysterious Reduce/Reduce Conflicts}. -@item LR(1) +@item @acronym{LR}(1) The class of context-free grammars in which at most one token of look-ahead is needed to disambiguate the parsing of any piece of input. @@ -5388,10 +8293,6 @@ A grammar symbol standing for a grammatical construct that can be expressed through rules in terms of smaller constructs; in other words, a construct that is not a token. @xref{Symbols}. -@item Parse error -An error encountered during parsing of an input stream due to invalid -syntax. @xref{Error Recovery}. - @item Parser A function that recognizes valid sentences of a language by analyzing the syntax structure of a set of tokens passed to it from a lexical @@ -5403,7 +8304,8 @@ performs some operation. @item Reduction Replacing a string of nonterminals and/or terminals with a single -nonterminal, according to a grammar rule. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm }. +nonterminal, according to a grammar rule. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison +Parser Algorithm}. @item Reentrant A reentrant subprogram is a subprogram which can be in invoked any @@ -5414,8 +8316,9 @@ invocations. @xref{Pure Decl, ,A Pure (Reentrant) Parser}. A language in which all operators are postfix operators. @item Right recursion -A rule whose result symbol is also its last component symbol; -for example, @samp{expseq1: exp ',' expseq1;}. @xref{Recursion, ,Recursive Rules}. +A rule whose result symbol is also its last component symbol; for +example, @samp{expseq1: exp ',' expseq1;}. @xref{Recursion, ,Recursive +Rules}. @item Semantics In computer languages, the semantics are specified by the actions @@ -5425,7 +8328,7 @@ each statement. @xref{Semantics, ,Defining Language Semantics}. @item Shift A parser is said to shift when it makes the choice of analyzing further input from the stream rather than reducing immediately some -already-recognized rule. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm }. +already-recognized rule. @xref{Algorithm, ,The Bison Parser Algorithm}. @item Single-character literal A single character that is recognized and interpreted as is. @@ -5442,6 +8345,10 @@ A data structure where symbol names and associated data are stored during parsing to allow for recognition and use of existing information in repeated uses of a symbol. @xref{Multi-function Calc}. +@item Syntax error +An error encountered during parsing of an input stream due to invalid +syntax. @xref{Error Recovery}. + @item Token A basic, grammatically indivisible unit of a language. The symbol that describes a token in the grammar is a terminal symbol. @@ -5449,14 +8356,53 @@ The input of the Bison parser is a stream of tokens which comes from the lexical analyzer. @xref{Symbols}. @item Terminal symbol -A grammar symbol that has no rules in the grammar and therefore -is grammatically indivisible. The piece of text it represents -is a token. @xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}. +A grammar symbol that has no rules in the grammar and therefore is +grammatically indivisible. The piece of text it represents is a token. +@xref{Language and Grammar, ,Languages and Context-Free Grammars}. @end table -@node Index, , Glossary, Top +@node Copying This Manual +@appendix Copying This Manual + +@menu +* GNU Free Documentation License:: License for copying this manual. +@end menu + +@include fdl.texi + +@node Index @unnumbered Index @printindex cp @bye + +@c LocalWords: texinfo setfilename settitle setchapternewpage finalout +@c LocalWords: ifinfo smallbook shorttitlepage titlepage GPL FIXME iftex +@c LocalWords: akim fn cp syncodeindex vr tp synindex dircategory direntry +@c LocalWords: ifset vskip pt filll insertcopying sp ISBN Etienne Suvasa +@c LocalWords: ifnottex yyparse detailmenu GLR RPN Calc var Decls Rpcalc +@c LocalWords: rpcalc Lexer Gen Comp Expr ltcalc mfcalc Decl Symtab yylex +@c LocalWords: yyerror pxref LR yylval cindex dfn LALR samp gpl BNF xref +@c LocalWords: const int paren ifnotinfo AC noindent emph expr stmt findex +@c LocalWords: glr YYSTYPE TYPENAME prog dprec printf decl init stmtMerge +@c LocalWords: pre STDC GNUC endif yy YY alloca lf stddef stdlib YYDEBUG +@c LocalWords: NUM exp subsubsection kbd Ctrl ctype EOF getchar isdigit +@c LocalWords: ungetc stdin scanf sc calc ulator ls lm cc NEG prec yyerrok +@c LocalWords: longjmp fprintf stderr preg yylloc YYLTYPE cos ln +@c LocalWords: smallexample symrec val tptr FNCT fnctptr func struct sym +@c LocalWords: fnct putsym getsym fname arith fncts atan ptr malloc sizeof +@c LocalWords: strlen strcpy fctn strcmp isalpha symbuf realloc isalnum +@c LocalWords: ptypes itype YYPRINT trigraphs yytname expseq vindex dtype +@c LocalWords: Rhs YYRHSLOC LE nonassoc op deffn typeless typefull yynerrs +@c LocalWords: yychar yydebug msg YYNTOKENS YYNNTS YYNRULES YYNSTATES +@c LocalWords: cparse clex deftypefun NE defmac YYACCEPT YYABORT param +@c LocalWords: strncmp intval tindex lvalp locp llocp typealt YYBACKUP +@c LocalWords: YYEMPTY YYRECOVERING yyclearin GE def UMINUS maybeword +@c LocalWords: Johnstone Shamsa Sadaf Hussain Tomita TR uref YYMAXDEPTH +@c LocalWords: YYINITDEPTH stmnts ref stmnt initdcl maybeasm VCG notype +@c LocalWords: hexflag STR exdent itemset asis DYYDEBUG YYFPRINTF args +@c LocalWords: YYPRINTF infile ypp yxx outfile itemx vcg tex leaderfill +@c LocalWords: hbox hss hfill tt ly yyin fopen fclose ofirst gcc ll +@c LocalWords: yyrestart nbar yytext fst snd osplit ntwo strdup AST +@c LocalWords: YYSTACK DVI fdl printindex